For travel to the United States on a temporary basis For foreign citizens who want to live permanently in the United States The Visa Waiver Program (VWP) allows citizens of participating countries* to travel to the United States without a visa for stays of 90 days or less Trump was sworn-in as the 47th President of the United States of America Learn more about quality higher-education opportunities in the U.S that you will not find anywhere else in the world Perhaps one of the most important partnerships between the United States and Brazil was the construction of the Parnamirim military base in Natal during World War II Roughly 5,000 American soldiers lived and worked at this air base which accelerated regional development and transformed the local culture Natal was the only city in Brazil to have a baseball field By U.S. Mission Brazil | 25 March, 2015 | Topics: Events, Recife, U.S. & Brazil We use cookies to make our website work better and improve your experience Letters from Africa marks the first of a five-book series of his intimate writings Archives of the National Museum of History / Ibram “Final idylls: finding a beautiful palm tree in Africa and enjoying the eternal sleep in its shade,” wrote André Rebouças (1838–1898) to Alfredo Maria Adriano d’Escragnolle Taunay (1843–1899) The engineer and abolitionist had not yet taken the cargo liner Malange but he was already building dramatic expectations for his trip throughout the African continent The message is one of the 193 notes Hebe Mattos from the History Graduate Department and Program at the Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF) compiled in Cartas da África – Registro de correspondência: 1891-1893 (Letters from Africa – Records of correspondence: 1891–1893) Rebouças began working on the book while staying in the French resort of Cannes where he was alone after an initial period in Lisbon with whom he would later live in exile after the Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil he remained faithful to the monarchy after November 15 (date of the proclamation) disappointed with the course of the newborn republic while preparing himself to circumnavigate the African continent one of the owners of the Jornal do Commercio newspaper the two faces of Rebouças are brought together which also alternate in the messages written to another 25 recipients—the engineer sharing his opinion on various aspects of politics is the beginning of a series of five books compiling the abolitionist’s intimate written notes and organized by Mattos — two of them in partnership with Robert Daibert Mattos’s first contact with Rebouças’s letters in exile was 15 years earlier During research for her doctoral thesis at Fluminense Federal University she had studied black intellectuals “who somehow reflected on the memory of slavery,” she mentions she took pictures of the letters written by André and kept them at the Joaquim Nabuco Foundation the philosopher did not get much coverage in the media But that was only until the publisher proposed to disclose the letters “My goal shifted into sharing André’s work with a larger audience.” According to Ligia Fonseca Ferreira from the School of Philosophy and Humanities of the Federal University of São Paulo (EFLCH-UNIFESP) this type of work has not yet been developed much by Brazilian scholars Hence the importance of granting access to Rebouças’s full text — earlier the major source of his personal writings was a compendium from 1938 Ferreira talks about his own experience with Luiz Gama’s works (1830–1882) — an abolitionism pioneer whose writings were published in Com a palavra Luiz Gama) (Imprensa Oficial do Estado de São Paulo 2011) and in Lições de resistência (Lessons in resistance) (Edições Sesc Ferreira believes the period addressed by Mattos is when Rebouças realized his condition as a Black person Rebouças refers to himself for the first time as “the Black man André.” Archives of the Joaquim Nabuco Foundation / Brazilian Ministry of EducationA letter written by Rebouças to his friend Rangel da CostaArchives of the Joaquim Nabuco Foundation / Brazilian Ministry of Education the suppression of the intellectual experience of free Black persons during the nineteenth century was a core theme it is a “basic point for the way racism was institutionalized as not racism.” “Color is mentioned when one speaks about a slave a “negro” or a “creole,” they have a slave in mind.” Intellectuals over 70% of the population were Blacks or browns Even researchers ignored the racial details when talking about men who today have major streets named after them was reinforced by the black and white photographs that lighten the skin of many of these people — but not that of Rebouças himself whose skin tone cannot be concealed in portraits the sharpness of his color enhances the myth of racial democracy When speaking of Rebouças as an important Black man as if his path as an engineer and entrepreneur tailoring commercial relationships with other men of his industry in several countries “were a result of a grant” by the monarchy from the Department of Sociology of the School of Philosophy and Humanities at the University of São Paulo (FFLCH-USP) and member of the adjunct panel of the FAPESP Scientific Board also highlights the “nullity of the racial issue” and how much Rebouças was used for that purpose largely the “spurious association” between himself and the monarchy “Rebouças has not been praised as a Black hero,” she shares in which abolitionism is addressed as a social movement among the merits of this work by Mattos is that of recovering the core figure for reasons beyond the abolitionist campaign “its most important facilitator,” but also “for many essential issues for Brazil,” a contemporary action he undertook with his brother Alonso highlights the gaps that have still not been filled in the studies about André Rebouças such as him having been such a successful entrepreneur Mattos states that the Chão series may help to fill this gap the next works expected to be published are: O engenheiro abolicionista: Diário 1882-1885 (The abolitionist engineer: Diary 1882-1885 (The incomplete abolition: Diary 1889-1891 (The emperor’s friend: Correspondence records 1889–1891); and Cartas de Funchal: Registro de correspondência 1893-1898 (Funchal’s letters: Correspondence records The publication of Rebouças’s writings reveals new themes such as the author’s “Tolstoism,” discussed in Mattos’s afterword in that issue are an “important inflection of Rebouças’s liberalism,” and shaped his social thinking Advocating for a “rural democracy,” Rebouças “remarks on the large financial capital from a rather moral perspective,” similar to that of the Russian author is what prevents Rebouças from accepting the bridges his friends tried to build for him to return to Brazil a letter written by Rebouças to his friend Rangel da Costa based on a portrait of the abolitionist’s upper body © Revista Pesquisa FAPESP - All rights reserved ethnically diverse crowd waited in the Sala Ducale of the Apostolic Palace in Rome for the pope to arrive the French missionary archbishop of Algiers the group had traveled to Rome on a double pilgrimage from North Africa and from the Diocese of Lyon Peter’s Square with camels and a special gift for the pope: a pair of gazelles wearing silver collars inscribed with Latin verse the smiling Pope Leo XIII and his entourage entered the Sala Ducale to sustained applause from the pilgrims It was a special year for Leo: the golden jubilee of his ordination to the priesthood Preparations had been underway throughout nearly the entirety of 1887 for the yearlong celebration in which the pope would receive thousands of gifts from all over the world and greet an abundance of well-wishers Among the pilgrims who traveled to Rome during Leo’s jubilee and its uniqueness was indicated by the 12 men strategically placed at the front of the crowd These 12 African men had been enslaved before their freedom was purchased by Lavigerie and his missionaries They were at the head of the group because today’s audience was an unofficial celebration of the release of Pope Leo’s encyclical on slavery the Brazilian statesman and abolitionist Joaquim Nabuco had met with Leo in a private audience and asked the pope to write the encyclical Brazil was on the cusp of abolishing slavery which would make it the last country in the Western Hemisphere to do so Due to the Brazilian princess regent Isabel’s devout Catholicism Nabuco thought a letter from the pope condemning slavery might embolden her to support abolition more aggressively and the news about this antislavery encyclical began to spread Cardinal Lavigerie wrote to the pope and asked him to include something about the continuing presence of slavery in Africa The anti-abolition prime minister of Brazil and he successfully pressed the Holy See to delay the issuance of the encyclical had finally gotten on board with abolitionism That revolutionary day when Leo XIII became the first pope to condemn slavery is not well known by many Catholics and is rarely mentioned in scholarship related to the church’s history The church’s historical engagement with slaveholding is very complex well-intentioned Catholic writers have published accounts of the church and slavery that are full of inaccuracies those inaccurate accounts are written to defend the church in some way Cardinal Avery Dulles wrote a book review in First Things claiming that the popes had denounced the trade in African slaves from its very beginnings and yet had never condemned slavery as such retaining a continuity of teaching that always allowed for some “attenuated forms of servitude.” Other apologists have taken a more absolute position: The church has always been against slavery itself Both these lines of argumentation seem to agree on two central assertions: The popes always condemned the trade in African slaves either in its reputation or its doctrinal continuity But when it comes to the history of the Catholic Church and slaveholding this posture of defense has been deeply damaging It has unnecessarily led to confusion around the church’s history with slaveholding and that confusion has helped to prevent the church from reckoning with a troubling history whose consequences are still present in our world The history of the church was nothing close to a steady and still is among historians of slavery today that the Catholic Church once embraced slavery in theory and in practice repeatedly authorized the trade in enslaved Africans religious and laity to keep people as enslaved chattel owned over 20,000 enslaved people circa 1760 The Jesuits and other slaveholding bishops priests and religious were not disciplined for their slaveholding because they were not breaking church teaching Slaveholding was allowed by the Catholic Church One of the reasons the church’s past approval of slaveholding is so little known among the general Catholic population today is that the very popes who reversed the church’s course on slavery and the slave trade also promoted that same inaccurate narrative that defended the church’s reputation and continuity—even at the request of Great Britain prior to the upcoming Congress of Vienna privately sent letters to the kings of France and Spain asking them to condemn the slave trade condemning the trade did not equate to condemning slavery itself “The slave trade” meant the transatlantic shipping of enslaved persons from the African continent to the New World prior to signing an anti-slave-trade bill into law in 1807 saw no contradiction in referring to the trade as “those violations of human rights” against “the unoffending inhabitants of Africa” all while continuing to keep Black descendants of the trade’s immediate victims enslaved but slaveholding remained legal afterward in parts of its empire Pius’s private letters referred only to the trade The papacy’s condemnation of the trade became a public one in 1839 with Gregory XVI’s bull “In Supremo Apostolatus.” Though the bull came Gregory deserves praise for being the first pope to publicly condemn the Atlantic slave trade after nearly four centuries of its operation blaming the advent of the trade on Christians who were “basely blinded by the lust of sordid greed.” And yet Gregory did not speak directly on the issue of whether slaveholders in the Americas should free their enslaved people So when some abolitionists in the United States greeted Gregory’s bull as a fully antislavery document Catholic bishops like John England of Charleston and Francis Patrick Kenrick of Philadelphia argued that the only thing the bull did was precisely what the United States had already done: ban participation in the international slave trade and so Catholic slaveholding was able to continue in the United States and elsewhere arguably without disobedience to church teaching multiple times and at some of its highest levels of authority of one of the gravest crimes against humanity in modern history could have issued nearly the same bull as Gregory did Gregory was just the first to choose to do it Gregory also provided a narrative in his bull that did not present a truthful portrait of the church’s engagement with the trade Pius VII had made an ambiguous and dubious claim that the church had helped to abolish much of the world’s slavery and that the popes had always “rejected the practice of subjecting men to barbarous slavery,” but Gregory expanded upon this claim in detail in such great number went down into the most rigorous slavery felt their condition very much alleviated among the Christians.” He claimed that slavery was gradually eliminated from many Christian nations because of “the darkness of pagan superstition being more fully dissipated and the morals also of the ruder nations being softened by means of faith working by charity.” this steady Christian march toward eliminating slavery from the earth was then interrupted by greedy Christians who reduced Black and Indigenous peoples to slavery or who bought already enslaved persons and trafficked them Gregory claimed that the papacy had been opposed to these new situations of enslavement: “Indeed by no means neglected to severely criticize this.” As evidence for this statement he cited the bulls prohibiting the enslavement of Indigenous peoples in the Americas written by Paul III as well as the then recent condemnations of the trade by Pius VII He also included a curious reference: a 1462 letter of Pius II that “severely rebuked those Christians who dragged neophytes into slavery.” the early church embraced slaveholding both before and after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire and the medieval church expanded the ways by which someone could become enslaved beyond those allowed by pagan Rome—allowing that women in illicit relationships with clerics could be punished with enslavement Thomas Aquinas theologically defended the practice of keeping humans enslaved Gregory the Great gave enslaved people to his friends as gifts while it was true that the popes condemned the enslavement of Indigenous peoples in the Americas the trade in African slaves was permitted and encouraged by a series of popes from Nicholas V instead seeming to suggest that Pius II’s letter meant the popes’ hands had always been clean with regard to the trade But Pius II’s condemnation had nothing to do with the general Portuguese trade in enslaved Africans; it instead concerned a particular instance of Catholic converts being kidnapped Nicholas V’s bulls had specified that only non-Christians could be seized and enslaved Pius II’s letter was in accordance with Nicholas’ permissions While it was true that the popes condemned the enslavement of Indigenous peoples in the Americas the trade in African slaves was permitted and encouraged by a series of popes The inaccuracy of this narrative did not go unnoticed The Portuguese consul in Brazil scoffed at the bull writing that “its doctrine has been most rarely sent forth from the Palace of the Vatican for it is well known that Nicholas V…and Calistus III…approved of the commerce in slaves” and that Sixtus IV and Leo X also approved of the trade even after the letter of Pius II He noted that Scripture did not condemn slavery and that the popes had previously condemned only the enslavement of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas Erroneous as Gregory’s narrative may have been Some British and American abolitionist historians had been promoting such a narrative for decades in an attempt to argue that Christianity had historically been an antislavery religion the American historian George Bancroft falsely claimed that the slave trade “was never sanctioned by the see of Rome.” It is possible that Gregory XVI honestly believed this narrative to be accurate and its publication in a papal bull meant that it would spread more widely When Leo XIII condemned not merely the slave trade but slavery itself on that exciting day in 1888 it may have not been too shocking to most people who heard the news Slavery was now legally abolished in the Christian world; why would the church not be opposed to it And yet both Nabuco and Lavigerie understood that Leo was making history The condemnations of slaveholding that Leo issued in 1888 and 1890 did not represent merely a change in policy which itself would have been momentous enough What the Holy Office only a couple decades prior had proclaimed was “not at all contrary to natural and divine law” was now declared by Leo to be contrary to both Leo even used the arguments of abolitionists to make his case There was a certain set of theological propositions that abolitionist theologians had been promoting for centuries Gregory of Nyssa to the 19th-century abolitionists Maria Stewart Frederick Douglass and the French Catholic journalist Augustin Cochin These propositions had been criticized or ignored by most Catholic theologians who wrote in favor of slavery His successors would repeat and even deepen those abolitionist ideas in their own antislavery documents over and over again bold and praiseworthy as Leo’s abolitionist encyclicals were he further concealed the truth about church history conciliar and canonical approval of slavery Leo strengthened Gregory’s narrative of a long antislavery march through history and inaccurately listed additional popes who had supposedly condemned the trade in African slaves and even slavery itself—including one of the popes who had renewed Nicholas V’s permissions What the Holy Office only a couple decades prior had proclaimed was ‘not at all contrary to natural and divine law’ was now declared by Leo to be contrary to both Leo may sincerely have believed these falsehoods to be true this erroneous papal narrative has survived online and in print who apologized for the participation of Christians in the slave trade repeated the false claim that the trade had been condemned by Pius II The Catholic Church’s change in teaching regarding slavery was striking While that change raises important theological questions about ecclesiology and doctrinal development we must reject the temptation to jump straight to those questions without also doing the hard and painful work of reckoning with this history It is morally imperative that we admit and deal with a series of difficult truths: that the Catholic Church approved of one of the gravest and longest-lasting crimes against humanity in modern history—and did not withdraw that approval for nearly 400 years During the full history of the Atlantic slave trade women and children were forced onto ships to be sent across the ocean to a life of forced labor Almost two million did not survive that journey The survivors and millions of their descendants were the chattel property of other humans who had the power to whip them force them to work unpaid their entire lives and keep their children enslaved as well we must consider the human beings affected by the church’s actions How many people died chained to the disease-ridden hulls of ships because the popes before Gregory XVI repeatedly failed to take a bold stand How many enslaved people were sexually assaulted because they were placed in a legal position allowed by the popes before Leo XIII that left them vulnerable to such abuse How many enslaved people fell away from the Catholic faith because priests told them that the oppression they were experiencing was occurring with the approval of Holy Mother Church Our church needs to admit these past injustices we need to do our best to repair the harm caused by the injustices our church perpetuated Anti-slave-trade Catholic theologians of the 16th century were already writing about the need to make restitution to enslaved people One 17th-century Capuchin even wrote about the eventual need for the descendants of slaveholders to make restitution to the descendants of the enslaved Some religious communities have taken steps toward reconciliation including the Jesuits of the United States but at some point the Vatican will have to do the same Perhaps there could be an international commission When we consider the millions of lives the trade harmed and still harms to this day it is difficult to imagine even the convoking of an ecumenical council as being too extreme a remedy Pope Leo XIII righted one significant wrong when he changed the Catholic Church’s teaching on slavery in 1888 and the popes since then should be lauded for their continual denunciation of slavery slavery-like economic practices and contemporary human trafficking But as with every unconfessed and unaddressed sin It takes courage to pick up that examination of conscience and pray with it It takes courage to enter the confessional say what needs to be said and commit to doing what needs to be done And yet the justice and love of God demand such steps Christopher J. Kellerman, S.J., is the author of All Oppression Shall Cease: A History of Slavery, Abolitionism, and the Catholic Church (Orbis Books Password reset instructions will be sent to your registered email address As a frequent reader of our website, you know how important America’s voice is in the conversation about the church and the world. We can't do it without you—America Media relies on generous support from our readers. Please visit our membership page to learn how you can invest in our work by subscribing to the magazine or making a donation If you’re already a subscriber or donor, thank you! If you login and register your print subscription number with your account, you’ll have unlimited access to the website. 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Suscribe x MercoPress, en Español Montevideo, May 5th 2025 - 13:40 UTC The Governors of the Brazilian States of Pernambuco and Alagoas issued separate emergency decrees during the weekend due to heavy rains affecting 12 and 29 cities respectively Pernambuco Governor Raquel Lyra decreed a situation of emergency in 12 cities in Zona da Mata heavy rains have affected 2,862 people from 756 families 447 people from 656 families are displaced and 101 families are homeless The emergency is established in the municipalities of São Benedito do Sul Thirteen points of landslides were registered in these cities - four in Catende it took into account the preservation of the welfare of the population and the socioeconomic activities of the affected regions and the fact that the inhabitants of the affected municipalities still do not have satisfactory conditions to overcome the damage and losses caused The government also announced the availability of emergency funding to municipalities in distress and calamity including those caused by heavy rains recorded in the metropolitan region of Recife and the areas of Mata and Agreste in recent days Governor Paulo Dantas Saturday declared a situation of emergency in 29 municipalities The municipalities reached by the decree are Atalaia Over 22,000 people have been affected statewide 2,756 people were left homeless and 19,273 people have been displaced 2,862 people have been affected by the rains in the state of which 447 are homeless and 101 are displaced Commenting for this story is now closed.If you have a Facebook account, become a fan and comment on our Facebook Page é uma das obras mais destacadas de Josué de Castro - Foto: Acervo Fundação Joaquim Nabuco-MiE “It wasn’t at the Sorbonne or any other wise university that I first knew about the phenomenon of hunger It was revealed to me spontaneously before my eyes in the miserable neighborhoods of the city of Recife: Afogados That was my Sorbonne: the mud of Recife's mangroves full of crabs and human beings.” That’s how doctor and geographer Josué de Castro, born in Pernambuco state, defines himself in the book “Of Men and Crabs” (1966). By looking at the unequal landscapes of Recife, he was able to understand the real causes of hunger a serious problem that affected the world's population in the middle of the 20th century and continues to do so to this day. When the 1964 military coup happened Josué was chief ambassador to Geneva He was removed from the post and died in exile but internationally renowned for presenting an innovative look at one of the saddest problems in the world: hunger. In the third episode of the series “Futuro interrompido: as consequências da ditadura militar para o Nordeste” (Future interrupted: the consequences of the military dictatorship for the Northeast region) Brasil de Fato recalls how the coup interrupted Josué de Castro's political rise and curbed for two decades many important ideas that are still guiding public policies to combat hunger. what he defended in parliament and what the military did with all his work Josué made efforts to reveal concrete political and social causes of hunger Josué de Castro was born in 1908 in Recife the son of a sertanejo (someone from the Sertão region) who married an heiress to large sugar cane plantations he grew up surrounded by the mud of mangroves With a degree in medicine, Josué stood out for his work on nutrition in the 1930s and 1940s Then President Getúlio Vargas invited him to draw up a social survey Collected data was later used to ground the idea of the minimum wage policy implemented by Vargas "There was a lot of talk about hunger ‘There's hunger here and there,’ but nobody could see where it was That's what's so innovative about his work," says Marina Gusmão researcher and author of the book O combatente da fome: Josué de Castro: 1930-1973 (“The Hunger Fighter: Josué de Castro: 1930-1973” in a rough translation). That's what people used to say," she adds The first time Josué de Castro pointed out hunger as a social problem was in a factory in Recife He had been hired to investigate the reasons for the supposed unproductivity of employees His response was surprising and caused a stir among industrialists "He did a study and concluded that it was impossible to increase workers’ productivity because they were suffering from hunger so he had no solution to the problem," says Marina Gusmão In 1946, Josué de Castro published The Geography of Hunger, a classic work and a reference for scholars on the causes of hunger worldwide. With this book, he literally put on the map the regions that were actually living in famine conditions. He then offered political solutions to the problem “‘The Geography of Hunger’ divides Brazil into geographical areas but according to criteria that he established in which he points out areas where there is acute hunger and so on," recalls Marina Gusmão In an interview for the documentary film Josué – um cidadão do mundo geographer Milton Santos recalls the innovative character of the Pernambuco thinker: "I believe that Josué plays two important roles: firstly to show the generality of the phenomenon of hunger and one of the most important hunger activists in Brazil highlighted the revolutionary nature of Josué's work: "The Geography of Hunger was a must-read book due to the topic he approached I think it was he who said that there is hunger in Brazil He was the one who gave hunger political and scientific status when he raised this issue." The Northeast Brazilian region that Josué studied was marked severe child malnutrition and low life expectancy Per capita income in the region was US$ 96 much lower than in the center-southern Brazil according to data cited by Vandeck Santiago in his book Pernambuco em chamas – a intervenção dos EUA e o golpe de 1964 from 30% of GDP in the 1930s to just 11% of the GDP in the 1950s From a health point of view, the level of malnutrition was extremely high. Children between the ages of five and ten had only 10% of the weight and height of those in the same age group in the United States Daily calorie intake was below the minimum conditions recommended at the time according to a survey carried out by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 1957 Only 4% of children were breastfed after six months of age according to data in the book The Revolution That Never Was "He says that the history of humanity is a history of hunger and goes on to show that hunger was always hidden People pretended the problem didn't exist It only came to light scandalously at the end of the Second World War when people in concentration camps were freed and the world saw them already in a catatonic state due to hunger," says Marina Gusmão "He worked on the progressive spectrum among those who understood that governments should act in favor of the most socially and economically excluded segments of society and those who are hungry," says political scientist Túlio Velho Barreto The coup silences Josué's ideas With the military coup of 1964, Josué de Castro became an enemy of the country. He was included on the list of first people to be persecuted, alongside President Jango and other authorities He lost his ambassadorial post and had his political rights revoked where he taught geography at the University of Vincennes he also traveled to various countries in Asia and Africa spreading his recent revolutionary thesis on hunger He remained abroad until his death in the 1970s "Josué de Castro's work was something that bothered the military the maintenance of status from the point of view of the elite and the dependence of the starving population on rulers," analyzes political scientist Túlio Velho Barreto Despite the silence imposed by the dictatorship, Josué de Castro continued to be studied by many researchers at universities, read by artists and adopted as a political reference for people’s movements, especially those fighting for agrarian reform In 2004, President Lula quoted Castro during the launching ceremony of the Food and Nutrition Security Council (CONSEA The event took place in Olinda (Pernambuco state) Lula pointed out that the geographer is a reference and that he dared to do what everyone else had neglected "A Brazilian like him should never have been punished but rewarded because he was concerned about something that the state should have been concerned about," he said the Mãos Solidárias Campaign organized by the Landless Workers' Movement (MST) created the Solidary People's Kitchens project The initiative is based on Josué de Castro’s ideas and provides weekly meals for food-insecure families in various areas of the Metropolitan Region of Recife is the coordinator of the Vila dos Milagres Solidarity Kitchen in Ibura She is in charge of preparing meals donated every week She describes the difficulties families face and the persistence of hunger despite the resumption of public policies in President Lula's third term Some people live almost in the mud: they don't have sanitation or a home," she denounces The Mãos Solidárias Campaign understands Josué de Castro's thesis on the causes of food insecurity and tries to denounce those who favor this environment of crisis hunger and helplessness for families living in impoverished areas "We see that hunger is not simply a lack of food, because there is food. If you go to supermarkets, production and agribusiness are increasingly making more profits of technology or production so that this food reaches people It's a political problem of social organization," explains Tomás Agra All original content produced and editorially authored by Brasil de Fato may be reproduced provided it is not altered and proper credit is given All original content produced and editorially authored by Brasil de Fato may be reproduced After being sold into slavery by his father Luiz Gama transformed his personal story into a fight for abolition and the Republic Militão Augusto de AzevedoLuiz GamaMilitão Augusto de Azevedo Luiz Gama was a man as extraordinary as he was complex starting with his achievements: abolitionist He belonged to a generation that was instrumental in the downfall of the Second Empire in Brazil in the 19th century he immersed himself in the struggles and conflicts of the era such as the relationships between Church and State a choice that reflected his own personal story: Gama had been a slave; as a child he drew from his dramatic and epic history the strength and stubbornness to free more than 500 slaves His name adorns public areas throughout Brazil understand him and put a spotlight on him has been the work of researchers such as Ligia Fonseca Ferreira a professor at the Federal University of São Paulo (Unifesp) She is the author of a doctoral thesis on the life and work of the former slave which she defended at the University of Paris III – Sorbonne Nouvelle Ferreira is black and has taken on the responsibility of studying someone with whom she has a more complex relationship than a neutral researcher would normally have with her subject “Sometimes the work of black researchers about black historical figures who affirmed this common identity is underrated Ferreira’s contribution to understanding Luiz Gama is remarkable She organized the critical reissue of Primeiras trovas burlescas & outros poemas de Luiz Gama [First Burlesque Ballads & Other Poems of Luiz Gama] (Martins Fontes Maxims (Government Printing Office of the State of São Paulo with an emphasis on French language and literature Ferreira became aware of the abolitionist when she did research at the Sorbonne between 1987 and 1988 on black literature in Brazil a field in which Gama was no less than the pioneer But given the fragmented documentation on the poet study centers and even secondhand bookstores Primeiras trovas burlescas de Getulino was published in 1859 in São Paulo and a meager number of printers and booksellers and three by the politician and law professor José Bonifácio The choice of the pseudonym “Getulino,” derived from “Getulia,” an ancient territory in North Africa already indicated that the author was of African origin entering the restricted circle of scholars the work was reissued in Rio de Janeiro by the same press that published the romantic novels by José de Alencar In the second “corrected and supplemented” edition to write and be read were two ways to stay close to power Try to put yourself in the place of a former slave Then imagine using your writings to satirize the politicians and customs of the day criticizing the “educated elite” and raising the issues of corruption the whitening of mulattos who renounced their roots By publishing a compilation in 2000 containing the entire poetic output of the abolitionist Ferreira opened up a fruitful field of study Luiz Gama waves the flag of the dissident liberals who would not accept the Republic without the abolition of slaveryCabrião and a gentleman of Portuguese origin and member of a prominent Bahian family The abolitionist son never revealed the name of the father who had sold him into slavery He was turned over to the dealer and smuggler Antônio Pereira Cardoso “obtained in a cunning and secretive way inconclusive evidence of his freedom,” he fled the Cardoso house Just two years before his death on July 25 Luiz Gama sent a letter to Lúcio de Mendonça one of the founders of the Brazilian Academy of Letters revealing some new facts about his biography Ferreira found this document in the National Library in Rio de Janeiro “It is one of the few accounts of the life of a former slave in Brazil In the history of blacks and Brazilian literature as are found so frequently in the United States,” she says This text is key to understanding how Gama became an influential voice in the republican and abolitionist movements Ferreira published it in her book Com a palavra Maxims—a work that brings together a selection of over 40 texts The letter was addressed to José Carlos Rodrigues the first periodical published in Portuguese in the United States Gama talks about the republican movement in Brazil and the Masonic Lodge America whose distinguished members included Rui Barbosa and Joaquim Nabucco thanks to the divine ineptitude of Pedro II is seriously organizing itself throughout the empire,” he wrote he argued that the establishment of a republic should be accompanied by abolition His conviction was such that he abandoned the Itu Convention (1873) upon finding coffee growers who opposed the emancipation of slaves in the foundation of the São Paulo Republican Party Correio Paulistanoadvertisement in which he offers his laborCorreio Paulistano Luiz Gama was already a well known personality he and the Italian cartoonist Angelo Agostini founded O Diabo Coxo the first illustrated humorous periodical of São Paulo he vehemently criticized the slave regime and went on to suffer from political persecution His anger turned against the abuse of the Moderating Power [one of the four imperial powers executive and judicial] and against emperor Pedro II himself whose image had been badly tarnished by the Paraguayan War (1864-1870) Luiz Gama received a license to practice law in the lower courts and that same year he founded the Clube Radical Paulistano with other members of the Masonic Lodge Gama revealed the fragility of the judicial system as when he unearthed the Law of November 7 in order to free Africans sold after that date he clashed with one of the leading judges of the capital whom Gama demanded should “respect the law and do his duty to what is paid for by the sweat of the nation.” Gama’s speech remains very current today He was also owner and editor of the political and satirical weekly O Polichinelo (1876) The press and freemasonry were crucial to Gama’s activism because they gave him space to defend republican ideals and supported him in his liberation of slaves There were other black abolitionists in the 19th century such as journalists Ferreira de Menezes and José do Patrocínio but none of them had experienced the ordeal of slavery One can compare Gama only to American abolitionists author of The Life of an American Slave (1845) Gama expressed admiration for the United States for him “the beacon of universal democracy.” An exemplary model: a federative republic of free and equal citizens and anchored in the Enlightenment ideals of liberty Gama was disturbed by the fact that Brazil remained the only monarchy in the Americas and last slave nation in the Western Hemisphere in her article Representações da América nos escritos de Luiz Gama [Representations of America in the Writings of Luiz Gama] to be published in the Revista de Estudos Afroasiáticos Gama’s lack of allusions to race riots and the segregation of blacks in the United States after slavery was abolished She has called attention to the fact that Gama never mentions Joaquim Nabuco in his writings and the latter almost never mentioned Gama former president of the province of São Paulo and denounced by Gama for his complicity in the illegal enslavement of Africans probably tired of waiting for the liberation of Africans if insurrection is a “crime,” “resistance” would appear to be a “civic virtue.” Joaquim Nabuco was convinced that abolition should be carried out by parliamentary means having not lived to see the liberation of slaves and the end of the Empire Ferreira notes that Gama was spared from seeing the birth of the Republic by military coup realizing that the ideals of equality among men were not being applied and learning that one of the purposes of the immigration policy had been to “whiten” Brazil in order to eliminate traces of the stigmatized and troublesome African presence in Brazil Vidya Amalia Rimayanti TEMPO.CO, Jakarta - Thanksgiving an annual holiday celebrated in the United States and Canada is particularly rich in tradition symbolized by turkey Often associated with counting the blessings of the year Thanksgiving celebrations in other parts of the world have evolved beyond their religious origins Thanksgiving traditions might vary across continents primarily due to each country’s long-standing cultural heritage. To better understand the occasion this article unveils a few countries that celebrate Thanksgiving Celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November, Thanksgiving is one of the most favored holidays in the United States bringing families together to share a hearty meal together The celebration not only unites people in America but it also serves others in the community as manifested through food donations across the country colleges accommodate a special meal for students who stay on campus allowing international students to experience the bountiful festivities. Before it was established as an official statutory holiday in all of Canada's provinces and territories except Prince Edward Island Thanksgiving went through several evolutions in terms of celebration dates and causes. Though the first began in 1777 at the request of Protestant clergy modern Canadian celebrations of the holiday are more subdued and often limited to small-scale family gatherings Thanksgiving was first brought to Brazil by Joaquim Nabuco a Brazilian ambassador to the United States and later established as a national holiday by President Gaspar Dutra in 1949 Although not as widely celebrated as other festivals this celebration generally centers around food Brazilians spend their Thanksgiving holidays surrounded by loved ones gathering for warm meals that include turkey cranberry is not a common Thanksgiving menu item in Brazil A growing number of Australians have embraced the American Thanksgiving tradition celebrating the holiday with a feast on the last Wednesday in November was brought by American whaling ships to Norfolk Island which is recorded as part of the Australian territory. Over the years, Thanksgiving celebrations in Australian houses have not left American menus The Pilgrims, the community that first coined the harvest celebration, spent time in the city of Leiden in the Netherlands The Thanksgiving custom was further perpetuated by these immigrants and has since been followed by many of Leiden's current residents. the annual Thanksgiving celebration at the Pieterskerk but rather on the perseverance and good fortunes of the early American settlers. all of the countries that celebrate Thanksgiving mentioned on the list above have been heavily influenced by the American Thanksgiving indicating its importance in its origin country. 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Here Are the Top 12 Destinations Top 10 Highest-Paying Majors Worth Pursuing in 2025 Six Dead, Dozens Injured in India's Goa Religious Festival Stampede Jokowi Responds to Calls for VP Gibran's Impeachment Two Sumatran Tiger Cubs Born in Barumun Sanctuary, Symbolize Hope for Conservation Prabowo Praises Jokowi's Inflation Control in Cabinet Session, Denies Link to Gibran's Presence Exposing Trump's Move on Mike Waltz Dismissal Expert Raises Alarm on Crypto Scams, Biometric Leaks After Worldcoin Freeze Study reconstructs the role of the abolitionist movement as a social force that led to the freeing of slaves Public Domain Image Open-air mass in celebration of abolition and illustration depicting an abolitionist, two slaves, and ParliamentPublic Domain Image Public Domain Image Abolitionist confederation in 1888, with José do Patrocínio (standing, first on left) and André Rebouças (seated, first on left)Public Domain Image Public Domain Image Parliament during voting of the Golden Law in 1888…Public Domain Image Public Domain Image …and the crowd outside: the text of the law was cut to the minimum necessaryPublic Domain Image Judicial activism The strategy spawned a nationwide campaign which was successful mainly in Ceará and Amazonas provinces that had relatively few slaves and counted on abolitionist governors the movement resulted in the abolition of slavery within province borders in 1884 and the territory became a destination for runaway slaves and freedmen from all over the country Another strategy that drew its inspiration from abroad was that of Luiz Gama who looked for legal loopholes and petitioned the court to grant slaves their freedom “Gama was part of a faction of abolitionism that defended judicial activism who believed reform should come through parliament,” says Fonseca Alonso argues that “they didn’t strictly disagree each relying on a different style of activism.” The freeing of the slaves in Ceará ushered in the “vote” phase When Sousa Dantas was appointed to head the imperial government in 1884 abolitionists helped draft the government’s program and launched 51 candidates in support of it “less at the polls than in the counting,” according to Alonso Cotegipe’s pro-slavery government took over with the police force and plainclothes militias openly and fiercely repressing abolitionist activities “It was at this point that the process of civil disobedience burgeoned,” the researcher says José do Patrocínio declared that “true abolitionists are prepared to die.” In the opinion of the historian Carlos Castilho professor at Vanderbilt University in the United States this attests to the valuable role that social movements played in this process “The struggles for political and civic participation have their own histories and historiography needs to rethink them,” says Castilho Thanks largely to abolitionism as a social movement abolitionism enjoyed the tacit support of the urban population which remained silent about runaway slaves,” says Alonso “Slavery was eaten away at from all sides.” Yet the process ended in a stalemate but the abolitionists were unable to implement their program to extend rights to freedmen The cabinet of João Alfredo Correa de Oliveira – prime minister to Emperor Pedro II – triumphed in its effort to make the Golden Law a mere two-paragraph declaration that did not compensate slave owners for their losses but also did not guarantee former slaves a dignified life University of São Paulo/Brazilian Center for Analysis and Planning); Investment R$ 116,566.11 votos e balas – O movimento abolicionista brasileiro (1868-88) (Flowers and bullets: the Brazilian abolitionist movement [1868-1888]) © Revista Pesquisa FAPESP - All rights reserved.