Metrics details the main source of information available to analyze gender inequalities in early complex societies is the human body itself archaeologists have struggled with the sex estimation of poorly preserved human remains Here we present an exceptional case study that shows how ground-breaking new scientific methods may address this problem Through the analysis of sexually dimorphic amelogenin peptides in tooth enamel we establish that the most socially prominent person of the Iberian Copper Age (c reveals that she was a leading social figure at a time where no male attained a remotely comparable social position Only other women buried a short time after in the Montelirio tholos appear to have enjoyed a similarly high social position Our results invite to reconsider established interpretations about the political role of women at the onset of early social complexity and question traditionally held views of the past this study anticipates the changes that newly developed scientific methods may bring to prehistoric archaeology and the study of human social evolution one topic stands out: the analysis of gender inequalities the identification of the sexually dimorphic morphological traits normally used in biological anthropology (i.e in the pelvis and the cranium) is often challenging While genetic sex identification is an alternative it does require the preservation of ancient DNA which is limited in hot and dry climatic conditions 3200–2200 BC) demonstrates how the addition of proteomics can transform the study of prehistoric social organisation Location of Valencina. Map created using Qgis 3.22 (https://qgis.org/es/site/) Structure 10.049, plans of the lower and upper levels. Author: Miriam Luciañez Triviño. Individual buried in the lower level of the structure 10.049, and main artefacts deposited around the body. Author: Miriam Luciañez Triviño. and main artefacts included in the offering Recreation drawing of ‘The Ivory Lady’ A major collection of high-end artefacts was recovered from the tomb many of them manufactured from exotic raw materials some of the women in the Large Chamber were dressed in sophisticated attires made with thousands of perforated beads carved from marine shell The builders of Montelirio sought to underline the connection which tied them with ‘The Ivory Lady’ Neither in Valencina nor in the whole of the Iberian Cooper Age has any other grave been found which remotely compares in material wealth and sophistication to these two graves These results raise entirely new questions regarding the nature of early forms of political leadership not only in Valencina but among Iberian Copper Age communities as a whole and the specific relationship of ‘The Ivory Lady’ with the people buried in the neighbouring Montelirio tholos occurred within a social context in which high-standing male burials were prevalent the Iberian Pre-Beaker Copper Age record shows no male burials remotely comparable to those of grave 10.049 or Montelirio at Valencina ‘The Ivory Lady’ appears to have drawn her influence nor from the control of agricultural produce but from her personal charisma and her achievements Her association with substances such as cinnabar are unlikely to result from exclusively mundane practices tomb 10.049 and the Montelirio tholos suggests that within the context of the incipient dynamics of social hierarchisation occurring between the late 4th and early 3rd millennia BC in Valencina women ostensibly enjoyed high-ranking positions not attained by men It is worth noting that both structure 10.049 and the Montelirio tholos are the most sumptuous tombs for the whole of Copper Age Iberia (and which suggests women held positions of leadership Considering the empirical findings presented in this paper themes such as matriarchal political systems and the role of female leaders in early political organisations deserve further discussion The examples discussed here invite us to reconsider prevailing ideas about power and gender differences among early complex societies it opens the door to reflect on the role that nineteenth century discourse about wealth and gender play in modern interpretations and the power of new scientific methods to challenge long-standing narratives of the past in the social sciences and the humanities whose morphology is not yet sexually dimorphic the upper left first incisor (FDI 21) from individual 10.049 at Valencina was submitted to the Center for Forensic Medicine Isotope distribution proportions were monitored via the Skyline idotp score with an applied cut-off of > 0.95 and a mass tolerance of 5 ppm In order to monitor retention time shifts and confirm peptide identification retention time differences Δt between mean AMELX/AMELY precursor ion retention times and mean retention times of closest synthetic standard peptide precursor ions were calculated The data that meet defined quality threshold (Mass tolerance 5 ppm Skyline idotp score > 0.95 for Enamelin and AMELX/AMELY Δt < 4 min) were interpreted as providing reliable results The analysis of the upper right third molar (FDI 18) of individual 10.049 at Valencina resulted in the detection of AMELX in absence of AMELY As the precursor ion intensity of AMELX was low a left upper first incisive (FDI 21) was analysed confirming female chromosomal sex of the buried individual The individual log peak areas of AMELX/AMELY precursor ions are shown in Supplementary Table S2 as well as their sums and the ratios of the sums between AMELY and AMELX to provide an overview of the isotope distribution proportions Introduction: Gender Prehistory – The Story So Far Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory (Basil Blackwell Gender and archaeology: contesting the past (Routledge Gender and the Archaeology of Death (Altamira Handbook of Gender in Archaeology (Altamira Press Doing archaeology as a feminist: Introduction (eds) Engendering Social Dynamics: The Archaeology of Maintenance Activities (British Archaeological Reports teoría y práctica de una arqueología científica Sobre la construcción sociohistórica del sujeto moderno (Katz Kinship practices in the early state el argar society from Bronze Age Iberia residential patterns and social complexity From theory to practice in Copper Ager Iberia Sex/gender system and social hierarchization in Bell Beaker burials from Iberia (eds) Archaeologies of Gender and Violence (Oxbow Books Warriors and other men: Notions of masculinity from the late Bronze Age to the early Iron Age in Scandinavia (Archaeo Press Introduction to binary binds: Deconstructing sex and gender dichotomies in archaeological practice Bio-arqueología de las prácticas funerarias: análisis de la comunidad enterrada en el cementerio prehistórico de la Cova des Càrritx (Ciutadella (eds) Current approaches to collective burials in the Late European prehistory (Archaeo Press Tomb I and Death Management in the 3rd Millennium BC at the Perdigões Enclosure (Reguengos de Monsaraz The identification of peptides by nanoLC-MS/MS from human surface tooth enamel following a simple acid etch extraction Sex estimation using sexually dimorphic amelogenin protein fragments in human enamel Sex determination of human remains from peptides in tooth enamel Child murder in the early bronze age: Proteomic sex identification of a cold case from Schleinbach Gendered burial practices of early bronze age children align with peptide-based sex identification: A case study from Franzhausen I Enamel peptides reveal the sex of the late antique ‘lovers of modena’ molecular approach to the sexing of the triple burial at the upper paleolithic site of Dolní Věstonice The mega-site of valencina de la concepción (Seville monumentality and aggregation in southern Iberian Copper Age societies Bioarqueología de las prácticas funerarias del yacimiento de la Edad del Cobre de Valencina de la Concepción-Castilleja de Guzmán (Sevilla): revisión de las investigaciones In El Asentamiento Prehistórico de Valencina de la Concepción Investigación y Tutela en el 150 Aniversario del descubrimiento de La Pastora (eds García Sanjuán The non-adult population of the Copper Age settlement of Valencina de la Concepción (Seville Burial practices and social hierarchisation in Copper Age southern Spain: analysing tomb 10.042–10.049 of Valencina de la Concepción (Seville landscapes: Early monumentality and social differentiation in Neolithic Europe 1005–1037 (University of Kiel Exploring the wider significance of the Montelirio tomb Análisis bioarqueológico de tres contextos-estructuras funerarias del sector PP4-Montelirio del yacimiento de Valencina de la Concepción-Castilleja de Guzmán (Sevilla) In El asentamiento prehistórico de Valencina de la Concepción (Sevilla): investigación y tutela en el 150 aniversario del descubrimiento de La Pastora (eds García Sanjuán The use and abuse of cinnabar in Late Neolithic and Copper Age Iberia trade and social significance in the southern Iberian Copper Age: The evidence from the PP4-Montelirio sector of Valencina de la Concepción (Seville Spain) ivory and identity-making in Copper Age Iberia The allure of rock crystal in southern Iberian Copper Age: Technical mastery and distinguished objects at Valencina de la Concepción (Seville Defining the ‘elites’: A comparative analysis of social ranking in Copper Age Iberia In Surplus without the State: Political Forms in Prehistory Proceedings of the 10th Archaeological Congress of Central Germany (Halle et al.) 311–335 (State Office of Heritage Management and Archaeology Saxony-Anhalt (LDA) chief: Political types in melanesia and polynesia Ethnographic parallels and the denial of history The political role of aggrandizers in egalitarian and transegalitarian societies In For the Greater Good of All: Perspectives on Individualism Transegalitarian societies: an ethnoarchaeological model for the analysis of Bell-beaker using groups in Central Iberia In Social Inequality in Iberian Late Prehistory (eds Díaz del Río Español L.) 81–96 (British Archaeological Reports International Series Villages of wealth and resistance in paradise: Millaran and Argaric chiefdoms in the Iberian Southeast In The Prehistory of Iberia: Debating Early Social Stratification and the State (eds Cruz Berrocal A new megalithic monument at the Antequera world heritage site (Spain) (eds) Montelirio: Un gran monumento megalítico de la Edad del Cobre (Junta de Andalucía La cronología radiocarbónica del tholos de Montelirio In Montelirio: Un gran monumento megalítico de la Edad del Cobre (eds Fernández Flores Caracterización antropológica de los restos óseos humanos del tholos de Montelirio Análisis de mercurio de los restos humanos del tholos de Montelirio In Montelirio: Un Gran Monumento Megalítico de la Edad del Cobre 449–454 (eds Fernández Flores Polydactyly in the Prehistoric American Southwest Polydactyly and the maya: A review and a case from the site of Peligroso Foot notes: The social implications of polydactyly and foot-related imagery at Pueblo Bonito Prehistoric polydactylism: Biological evidence and rock art representation from the Atacama Desert in northern Chile Valoración e Interpretación de una tumba excepcional In Montelirio: Un Gran Monumento Megalítico de la Edad del Cobre (eds Fernández Flores Emblems and spaces of power during the Argaric Bronze Age at La Almoloya The costume of a rich woman from Franzhausen Textiles in the Ancient World Studies in Honour of Carmen Alfaro Giner (eds García Sánchez M.) 211–224 (Universitat de Barcelona Editions The Deposed Princess of Vix: The Need for an Engendered European Prehistory Proceedings of the Twenty-Second Annual Conference of the Archaeological Association of the University of Calgari (eds Walde Farming economy and wealth economy in the Copper Age of the Lower Guadalquivir River: Debating strategic resources at Valencina de la Concepción (Seville In Key Resources and Socio-Cultural Developments in the Iberian Chalcolithic 237–256 (eds Bartelheim Una investigación sobre la ginecocracia en el mundo antiguo según su naturaleza religiosa y jurídica (Akal la propiedad privada y el estado (El Cid Editor The gods and goddesses of old Europe: 7000 to 3500 BC myths legends and cult images (University of California The Chalice and the Blade: Our History (Our Future Why an Invented Past will not Give Women a Future (Beacon Press In Archaeologies of Gender and Violence (eds Matic Sex estimation of teeth at different developmental stages using dimorphic enamel peptide analysis Platform independent and label-free quantitation of proteomic data using MS1 extracted ion chromatograms in skyline Application to protein acetylation and phosphorylation The ProteomeXchange consortium in 2020: Enabling ‘big data’ approaches in proteomics The PRIDE database and related tools and resources in 2019: Improving support for quantification data Download references This research has received funding from various projects Men and Mobility: Understanding Gender Inequality in Prehistory’ (European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No 891776) Landscape and Social Complexity at Major Andalusian Megalithic Sites: Antequera and Valencina” (Andalusian R&D FEDER Program 2018 Call) and ‘The Value of Mothers to Society’ (European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (Grant Agreement No 676828) Salisbury for comments and editing for language We also thank professors Antonio Gilman and Timothy Earle for their comments on the first drafts of this paper Raquel Montero Artús & Leonardo García Sanjuán Department of Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology The authors declare no competing interests Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Download citation DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-36368-x Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: a shareable link is not currently available for this article Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory (2024) Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science Home → Science → Archaeology archaeologists found the remains of several individuals buried in a ceremonial fashion as well as a most striking artifact: a stunning dagger made from rock crystal The intricately carved crystal dagger has been dated to at least 3000 BCE making it the “most technically sophisticated and esthetically impressive collection of rock crystal material culture ever found in Prehistoric Iberia,” according to Spanish researchers who investigated the site Prehistoric humans in Europe made most of their tools from chert and flint Tools made by knapping ‘rock crystals’ (macro-crystalline quartz) were far less prevalent but people developed a technique for their manufacturing that appeared during late prehistory in certain European regions such as the southwest Iberian Peninsula in the third millennium BCE Although rock crystal tools were more difficult to fashion and the raw materials weren’t as abundant as sedimentary rock, prehistoric people likely cherished them due to their social value Just as we stand in awe today at their sight one would imagine that people were even more impressed by them thousands of years ago This particularly exquisite rock crystal tool was found in one of eight megalithic tombs from Valencina de la Concepción a site near Seville in Spain that is considered one of the most significant for the study of Copper Age Iberia The tomb, known as the Montelirio Tholos It is a great megalithic construction with a 39-meter (128-foot) corridor leading to a main chamber with a 4.75-meter (15.5-foot) diameter from which Researchers found the remains of at least 25 individuals including shrouds and clothes made of tens of thousands of perforated beads and decorated with amber beads and rock crystal dagger were found at the back of the main chamber No other objects were found in the rest of the chamber At least several females and one male excavated within Montelirio tholos are believed to have died due to poisoning The remains of the women were arranged circularly in a chamber next to the bones of the male The dagger was found in a different chamber “in association with an ivory hilt and sheath.” There are no sources of quartz of the kind used in the dagger near the site which suggests the materials were sourced from far afield The researchers say this is another reason these crystal daggers and arrowheads may have been reserved for a few elite individuals who could afford them it had a social significance due to the exoticism of the material and the fact that its transformation required very specific skills and probably some degree of technical specialisation They probably represent funerary paraphernalia only accessible to the elite of this time-period The association of the dagger blade to a handle made of ivory also a non-local raw material that must have been of great value strongly suggests the high-ranking status of the people making use of such objects.” “On the other hand, rock crystal must have had a symbolic significance as a raw material invested with special meanings and connotations. The literature provides examples of societies in which rock crystal and quartz as raw materials symbolise vitality magical powers and a connection with ancestors © 2007-2025 ZME Science - Not exactly rocket science © 2007-2025 ZME Science - Not exactly rocket science Anyone with even a passing knowledge of New Age philosophies and principles knows that crystals symbolize all kinds of important things to its practitioners – strength depending on the context in which they are used Hanging one in the window of an ailing individual is said to help with healing; hanging one over the entrance of someone’s home is said to encourage divine protection Whether you believe wholeheartedly in these principles or find them to be utter nonsense there is no denying that a substantial portion of the global population believes in the power of crystals They found crystal to be an ideal material from which to fashion weapons Just these kinds of artifacts were discovered at a southwestern archaeological site in Spain archaeologists were bowled over by the objects found at the site including the graves of at least 25 people Experts say the tomb covers almost 145 feet overall Within it were many women but only one male The women were positioned in a kind of semi-circle in a room separate from where the male was found leading researchers to conclude the man was a chief of some kind and the women perhaps his followers Also buried with the people were numerous pieces of clothing The researchers published their findings in the online scholarly journal ResearchGate.com “(We) found an extraordinary set of sumptuous grave goods… the most notable of which is an unspecified number of shrouds or clothes made of tens of thousands of perforated beads and decorated with amber beads.” Crystal was not a common material in the region so the daggers and other weapons made from it were not for everyone which contributed to the rarity of the discovery Experts on the dig expressed amazement at the skill it must have required for someone to make the arrowheads whomever crafted these blades and other weapons must have looked long and hard for the crystal in another region His remains were found in a foetal position meaning he had been lain in a sort of semi-circle There was also a set of 23 blades near him All these discoveries have led researchers to conclude that Valencina is an extraordinary site for archaeologists particularly because of the discovery of the rock crystal weapons Crystal was not available there thousands of years ago travelled a great distance to acquire it in order to make the weapons Did they do it solely to impress the community’s elite Another Article From Us: Untouched and Unlooted 4,400-yr-old Tomb of Egyptian High Priest Discovered Or in the hope that a new material would create a durable weapon different from flint This fact adds a level of mystery to the Valencina de la Concepcion site a level that perhaps should impress New Age believers there were those who believed in the power of crystal long before it became fashionable to do so Ian Harvey is one of the authors writing for The Vintage News Join 1000s of subscribers and receive the best Vintage News in your mailbox for FREE