A deeply aromatic red, offering orange peel, clove and … Please enable JS and disable any ad blocker This website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks The action you just performed triggered the security solution There are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase You can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked Please include what you were doing when this page came up and the Cloudflare Ray ID found at the bottom of this page Each day, the team at Aircraft For Sale picks an airplane that catches our attention because it is unique, represents a good deal, or has other interesting qualities. You can read Aircraft For Sale: Today’s Top Pick at FLYINGMag.com daily Today’s Top Pick is a 2006 Maule M-4-180V Georgia-based purveyor of modern taildraggers has been charting its own unique course for decades While its aircraft seem old-fashioned because of their rag-and-tube construction they remain in production and are ideally suited to their customers’ needs which include carrying loads into the backcountry and operating from short In light of the growing popularity of STOL and off-airport flying Maule’s lineup feels completely up to date The aircraft for sale here offers an attractive combination of capability and economy While relatively new by general aviation standards this M-4 feels like a bargain compared with numerous older taildraggers that are popular among short-field enthusiasts Even though Maules have been around since the 1940s they are not necessarily well-known among everyday aircraft shoppers They tend to attract pilots with a strong sense of adventure and tradition.   This 2006 Maule M-4 has 925 hours on the airframe and on its 180 hp Lycoming O-360-C1F engine since new Airframe upgrades include observation doors The aircraft has a maximum takeoff weight of 2,300 pounds and a useful load of 882 pounds The panel features a Garmin 250XL GPS/Comm Aera 660 portable GPS with panel mount that displays ADS-B with weather and traffic Electronics International SP-8-A engine analyzer Pilots searching for a traditional 1940s-style taildragger with numerous upgrades that make it better-suited to modern times should consider this 2006 Maule M-4-180V, which is available for $125,900 on AircraftForSale. If you’re interested in financing, you can do so with FLYING Finance. Use its airplane loan calculator to calculate your estimated monthly payments. Or, to speak with an aviation finance specialist, visit flyingfinance.com Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article Fox Maule Ramsay, 11th earl of Dalhousie (born April 22, 1801, Brechin Castle, Angus, Scotland—died July 6, 1874, Brechin Castle) was a British secretary of state for war (1855–58) who shared the blame for the conduct of the last stage of the Crimean War Panmure was appointed to the new office of secretary of state for war ‘Grace has just jumped off the swing and her hair is all over the place but she doesn’t care It’s a moment that encapsulates everything freeing about living on the island’ I always take particular interest in the way people relate to each other and their surroundings I wanted to start a personal project a little closer to home and explore the lives of people who had done something different and come up against challenges I looked at a few options before remembering Hugh who employed me as a graphic designer when I was just starting out Hugh moved with his dog to the isle of Jura in the Inner Hebrides where he’d spent holidays as a kid in a tiny stone cottage rented by his family the cottage had just been a summer retreat – there was no power and they’d boil up water on the little stove Hugh bought the place and stayed there while he did it up I wanted to see how a family might exist in this different universe where there’s a population of only a couple of hundred I was there for every single aspect of their lives from when they got up to when they went to sleep I wanted to get a sense of how life was for them rather than just picking convenient times when everyone had their best clothes on even in the bath – there was no lock on the bathroom door It was a glorious moment – I felt something was about to happenI even photographed them attending a funeral when someone dies on Jura the whole community comes together I was delighted by how the kids dressed for that Nine-year-old Grace was in a black spotty dress and wellies was wearing a little suit jacket with a red dicky bow There was a sense of freedom that a lot of children don’t get any more The kids were allowed to go out the front door meet a friend who might live a couple of miles away The family do a lot of walking: on the day I took this we were on the return leg of an expedition that had lasted hours It was a glorious moment – the sun had just come out there was mist on the mountains and Grace had stopped to play on the rope swing you can see in the background I like being close to people and then having to remind myself to stand back After Grace jumped off the swing and was running to catch up with the family I took one or two frames that captured the location and her movement I love the position of her against the backdrop This moment encapsulated everything that was freeing about the island – her hair is all over the place but she doesn’t care it was beautiful weather for the entire time I was on Jura Hugh and Jane told me it’s normally just torrential rain They’re desperate for me to go back in the depths of winter and maybe do another part of the series Photograph: Hannah Maule-ffinchHannah Maule-ffinch’s CVBorn: 1976 UKTrained: “Graphic design at Nottingham Trent Uni self-taught in photography”Influences: “Steve McCurry Lynsey Addario”High point: “Deploying to humanitarian crises all over the world on the behalf of NGOs using my skill for an important purpose”Low point: “When I was starting out not taking a backup on a commission and my camera breaking I learned the very hard way.”Top tip: “Create a strong personal style Don’t have a portfolio full of so many different images and styles that a client can’t easily connect a brief with you Make sure you can create income elsewhere if you need to; it’s a very hard but an extremely rewarding road so stay strong and don’t give up.” Hannah Maule-ffinch won silver in the documentary category at the 39th Association of Photographers photography awards for her project Life on Jura Please select what you would like included for printing: Copy the text below and then paste that into your favorite email application and with deep gratitude for the gift of his loving kindness the family announces the passing of Peter Maule on Saturday August 17th Proud father of Stephen (Elizabeth Walker) proud grandfather of Rebecca (Eric Chavarie) joy-filled at the news of becoming Great-Grandfather of Lola Peter served as head of the English department of Parry Sound High School and coached the tennis and badminton teams He served as a founding board member of the Festival of the Sound and was later president of the board Peter was a member of the United Church of Canada singing in the choir at St James United Church in Parry Sound serving as Choir Director at Grace United Church in Barrie and in his latter years singing in the St John’s United Church choir in Georgetown Peter continued to share his love for education by helping students through the Kumon program and presiding over exams Peter loved watching his grandsons’ baseball games and loved hearing about all his grandchildren’s adventures Peter was known for his listening skills and his interest in people His gentle kindness radiated through to whomever he was with Even when his physical health was declining his heart connected deeply with many friends and Cindy; thank you to the staff at Allendale LTC Mountainview Residence and to the CANES program A service celebrating Peter’s life will be held Thursday August 22 donations can be made to the Festival of the Sound or a charity of your choice Add to Calendar Complete the form below to get directions for the Celebration of Life for Peter Maule This site is protected by reCAPTCHA and the Google Privacy Policy and Terms of Service apply Service map data © OpenStreetMap contributors there are some damn fine practitioners out there making red-hot work—it’s hard to pick just three Megaforce - It feels like an obvious answer but these dudes just do things differently they’re lucky enough to get the best scripts in the business but how they add depth and voice to their work is incredible I watched that Burberry flying commercial and shuddered with delight It evoked such a feeling of summer freedom that really got to me.  “That flying effect will be in a movie soon.” A couple of years later I saw a similar flying sequence in El Conde the director referenced how MegaForce had influenced him It’s wonderful to see commercials be so infectious to the broader creative landscape Misko Iho - I love Misko He’s not only a talented bloke but a lovely chap to boot I’ve had the pleasure of sharing two rosters with him over the years I admire the sense of atmosphere he can create in such a small amount of time His classically influenced shooting style feels like you’re watching something timeless His Lidl Christmas commercial is a superb short film that just happens to be a commercial Robert Eggers - He’s not a commercials director but the volume of work he has managed to create in just four movies is incredible His world building skills are almost unmatched for someone of his age and I think the way he makes you feel the atmosphere of a movie is inspiring.  This is the aforementioned MegaForce commercial (Open Spaces) The choice to do this for real is just a stunning idea that evokes such feelings of freedom The authenticity this gives the film is breathtaking Unlock full credits and more with a shots membership Explore full credits, grab hi-res stills and more on shots Vault comical yet grounded performances and of course a fantastic idea Orchestrating all of those elements to make something as iconic as this is an example of great direction.  he captures all the necessary shot sizes through a simple camera pan The one-take approach pulls the audience into the scene The comedic moment when her opponent falls adds a perfect the silhouette introduction of Indiana Jones creates an iconic and it’s the kind of filmmaking I strive to incorporate into my own projects It might be impossible to say which is my favourite Coen Brothers scene. The Big Lebowski is certainly up there as something which is masterfully written and directed It’s like a perfect short film that ends with a delightful comedic twist The choice to frame the gormless kid against the man in the iron lung is a stroke of oddball genius The stillness of the photography allows you to squirm in the awkwardness of it all.  What I can’t help myself doing is searching for the humour in a script I love exploring what amuses me and seeing how much of it I can insert into a project no matter how small or fleeting it might be.  It’s a joy walking onto a set knowing you’re there to try and make people smile with what you’re creating Collaborating with a cast and crew who are committed to making the best end result is a wonderful experience I went on the Back to the Future ride in Orlando I just remember being so excited about “feeling the movies.” Ever since then it’s been my goal to give that feeling back to people working in entertainment TV before one of my short films grabbed the attention of a boutique commercial production company After a while I went freelance and just kept at it making shorts and writing long format stuff in my spare time.  Explore full credits, grab hi-res stills and more on shots Vault as Christmas arrives and snowfall beckons outside you’re flying to exotic places and in demand; the next Being resilient in the face of harder times is crucial as is the ability to craft material that flexes different creative muscles I’ve just finished a short film that nearly gave me a heart attack We shot an ambitious sci-fi/dark comedy in just one day in November I’m really proud of it and I think it’s something that shows where I want to go artistically in the future His immersive visual storytelling is awe-inspiring I love how he takes you on adventures and delivers you safely back at the end and Elliot flying over the full moon will be an image shown until the end of time Iconic does’t do him and his work justice.  One was a lovely TV director called Dan Zeff who gave me so much of his time and great insight into the TV industry We even went on to co-write a show that’s currently in development The other is a rather massive Hollywood director who shall remain nameless I discovered he lived down the road from me I popped a letter through his door asking for advice he responded and gave me a couple of hours of his time His advice helped me get my first feature script into development It’s really wonderful to see top-tier talent being so kind to up-and-comers I shall do the same when I’m at that level.  everyone’s bricking it about AI and how it’ll change what we do I’m still confident that brands will want physical filmmaking for their commercials but I think AI will become a tool rather than a replacement for human creativity I also think we all need to keep sharpening our filmmaking skills outside of commercials Making shorts or long-format content really helps hone a director’s craft We speak with Kode Media director Michael Holyk about being a warhammer nerd From Swedish pole vaulters to irreverent documentary series MJZ's Niclas Larsson shares the people and art that have inspired his vibrant and varied career spanning acting award-winning short filmmaking and commercial directing is fascinated by brilliant people's obsessions and is turning a childhood dream into a reality for his upcoming project The Work Editorial editor talks us through the complex timelines handy foot-coverings and romantic aliens that keep her creativity flowing Click below to find out how to super-charge your shots Magazine experience with the world's most comprehensive advertising database Fill out the form below to arrange a personalized demo and see how Shots can work for you.. Select Health today announced the grand opening of its Nevada headquarters with a ribbon-cutting ceremony The event also celebrated the opening of the Intermountain Health Maule Clinic exclusively for Select Health members located within the same facility The new Select Health headquarters serves as a hub for all members to access care explore health insurance products and services The building also features a dedicated event space for hosting information sessions during health insurance enrollment periods for both Medicare Advantage and commercial insurance plans "This new headquarters represents our ongoing commitment to serving the health needs of Nevadans,” said Rob Hitchcock “By offering a central location for our members to access services and information we're making it easier for them to navigate their healthcare journey." The Intermountain Health Maule Clinic is now open and provides specialized primary care services exclusively for Select Health Medicare members ensuring Medicare beneficiaries receive high-quality the clinic offers traditional primary care services for commercial Select Health members expanding healthcare options for the community “Our team is dedicated to delivering the highest standards of patient-centered care,” said Intermountain Health family medicine physician Catherine Bautista one of two providers caring for patients at the clinic “I educate my patients to ensure they have the information they need to help manage their chronic conditions and to prioritize nutrition and lifestyle changes so they feel empowered to take care of themselves and live the healthiest lives possible." Intermountain Health family nurse practitioner Johanna Lim also is accepting new patients at the new Maule Clinic. “We're focused on prioritizing the diverse healthcare needs of our patients ensuring they each receive personalized and comprehensive care,” Lim said “I consider the individuality of each patient when customizing a care plan that emphasizes their comfort while instilling confidence in their journey.”   Intermountain Health offers patient care at over 65 clinics across southern Nevada of which more than 30 are award-winning primary care clinics recognized for providing exceptional healthcare for adults 65 and older Select Health and Intermountain Health demonstrate the continued commitment to improving the healthcare landscape in Nevada.  efforts are focused on meeting the needs of members This collaborative model is designed to reinvest in the community and provide a better healthcare experience “Our new building and clinic offer a one-stop shop for care making the experience easier for patients and members,” said Jason Worthen president of the Select Health Desert Region “This collaboration with Intermountain Health will empower members to advocate for their health and improve their well-being,” Worthen added This combined effort will also address healthcare disparities by prioritizing social determinants of health (SDOH) among members and making disparity reduction a clinical best practice The Select Health Nevada headquarters and Intermountain Health Maule Clinic are located at 6795 Agilysys Way in Las Vegas Select Health members can schedule a visit to the new clinic by calling 702-948-1155 Intermountain Health welcomes the opportunity to work with local and international journalists and news media outlets We are always available to respond to your questions and help support your newsgathering efforts Interview requests with Intermountain Health medical experts should be directed to our media relations team FOR NEWS MEDIA ONLY: To contact a member of the Intermountain Health Media Relations team for assistance:  > Email: IntermountainNews@imail.org  > Phone: On-Call Media Relations Representative: 385-275-8245  Today’s Top Pick is a 2006 Maule M-7-260. With the rise of interest in backcountry flying and STOL competitions the long-running family of Maule high-wing bush airplanes has gained popularity among adventurous pilots seeking to hone their short-field skills and reach remote destinations All FLYING subscribers are automatically entered into our giveaway Subscribe today for a chance to buy the plane of your dreams Maules come in a variety of configurations with a range of engines and capabilities aimed at addressing the needs of a diverse group of pilots For decades the Maule name was synonymous with taildraggers but the company’s optional tricycle-gear layout has received more attention in recent years as more pilots seek backcountry flying experience Many of these pilots wish to continue flying aircraft with the tricycle gear they are familiar with and Maule’s tri-gear machines are extremely rugged and capable.  This 2006 Maule M-7-260 has 1,213 hours on the airframe and 330 hours since overhaul on its 260 hp Lycoming IO-540 engine The aircraft is equipped with patrol doors and long-range tanks with a capacity of 82 gallons The VFR panel includes a Garmin GNS 430 GPS/nav/com Garmin SL 30 com radio,  Garmin 106 glideslope indicators Stratus EGS transponder with ADS-B In and Out Pilots looking for a utilitarian high-wing aircraft with the power and lifting capacity to handle bush flying and enough speed for cross-country travel should consider this 2006 Maule M-7-260, which is available for $245,000 on AircraftForSale. If you’re interested in financing, you can do so with FLYING Finance. Use the airplane loan calculator to calculate your estimated monthly payments. Or, to speak with an aviation finance specialist, visit flyingfinance.com. A Crofton man was charged with possession of drugs after a traffic stop on South Virginia Street in Hopkinsville Monday night. Hopkinsville Police say 41-year-old Jeremiah Maule was a passenger in a vehicle stopped for a traffic violation. The driver reportedly gave consent to law enforcement to search the vehicle. Police say Maule told them he had defecated on himself when he stepped out of the vehicle. After a search of his pockets, a glass pipe with suspected meth was reportedly found. He was arrested and charged with possession of meth second offense. It is with tremendous sadness that we announce the passing of our beloved wife, mother, sister, auntie, and dear friend to many, Helga Angelika Maule. Helga was diagnosed with cancer in 2021, and the past years and months had been very challenging for her. We are comforted in knowing that she passed comfortably and peacefully in her home, on August 7, surrounded and supported by family and friends. Born in Germany to Otto and Emma Geldschus on December 10, 1950, Helga and her little sister, Margarete (Greta) were lovingly raised and nurtured by their devoted Oma and Opa for their first years. Some of Helga’s fondest and earliest memories were of an active and happy life in the German countryside, with baby goats, fairytales, and magical Christmas traditions. At the age of 7, Helga, along with Greta, began Canadian life in Oshawa. Helga was a bright, artistic, and loving child, and was always a meticulous and dedicated student, with an excellent mind for numbers and maths. A shy but popular teen, Helga was a caring and loyal daughter, sister, and friend. Many of the friendships formed in these early years have lasted to this day. At the age of 20, Helga married her life partner, Thomas Maule, and for the next 54 years they built a stable and comfortable life with one another. Outside of their jobs at General Motors, Helga and Tom enjoyed the company of many friends, as well as many trips and bike rides across the continents. Helga was thrilled to become a mother, and to welcome Isabella Emma (Izzy) into her and Tom’s life in 1995. Both Helga and Izzy shared a special fondness for cats, and Helga opened her heart and home to many throughout her life. Helga’s special laugh, beautiful blue eyes, and gentle nature will live on in our hearts and memories. As per her wishes, Helga has been cremated. Please join us as we honour her life and memory on Saturday August 24, 2024, at the Maule residence, 1806 Coates Road East, Port Perry, Ontario. Arrangements entrusted to Low & Low Funeral Home, Port Perry.  Friends are invited to send condolences to Helga’s family by visiting www.lowandlow.ca. Volume 10 - 2022 | https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.970493 The 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule earthquake occurred offshore central Chile and ruptured ∼500 km along the megathrust fault resulting from the oceanic Nazca plate subducting beneath the continental South American plate The Maule earthquake produced remnant crustal displacements captured by a vast set of geodetic observations given the nature of the observational techniques it is challenging to extract its accurate three-dimensional coseismic deformation field with high spatial resolution we modified the extended simultaneous and integrated strain tensor estimation from geodetic and satellite deformation measurements (ESISTEM) method with variance component estimation algorithm (ESISTEM-VCE) to retrieve the three-dimensional surface displacement field of this event by integrating the interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) and global positioning system (GPS) measurements The ESISTEM-VCE method accounts for the spatial correlation of surface displacement among the adjacent points and determine the accurate weight ratios for different data sets but also uses the uncertainties of GPS data and considers the different spatial scales from the different datasets the RMSEs of the ESISTEM-VCE method are smaller than those of the ESISTEM and ESISTEM-VCE (same d0) methods we apply the proposed methodology to the 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule earthquake to obtain a three-dimensional displacement field that could provide fine deformation information the significant deformation is in the north of the epicenter with a maximum westward displacement of 495.5 cm The displacement in the north-south component is relatively small compared to that in the east-west component The maximum uplift reaches 211.8 cm located at the southwest of the Concepción the derived vertical displacements are also compared with field investigations indicating that the ESISTEM-VCE method can obtain more accurate weight of different datasets and perform better than the ESISTEM method The results highlight that the earthquake ruptured along the NE-SW direction with a dominant thrust and a relatively small component of right-lateral strike-slip coinciding with the characteristics of subduction and right-lateral shear The experiments with the simulated and real data suggest that the improved ESISTEM-VCE method in this study is feasible and effective The bold red arrow shows the interseismic convergence vector between the Nazca plate and the South American plate The purple rectangles represent the locations of surrounding cities; Cons they defined the relative weight between horizontal and vertical components of GPS data without acknowledging their uncertainties they defined the same distance–decaying constants to multi-source data which is also not appropriate for GPS and InSAR data with intrinsically different spatial distributions the spatial scale of GPS data is larger than that of InSAR observations To overcome the shortcomings mentioned above we propose the improved ESISTEM method combined with VCE algorithm (ESISTEM-VCE) We also called this method tight integration of GPS/InSAR data which is similar to the integration of GPS/INS in navigation The main objectives of this method are: 1) to avoid the interpolation of sparse GPS data and construct a functional model with physical meaning that takes into account the spatial correlation among adjacent points based on elastic theory; 2) to utilize the uncertainties of horizontal and vertical directions from GPS data and fully consider the differences of the spatial scales intrinsic to data from GPS networks and InSAR scenery; 3) to make a posteriori estimation of the adjustment stochastic model and determine the accurate weights of GPS and descending InSAR data by applying the VCE algorithm exploit the intrinsic complementarity of GPS and InSAR data to determine surface displacements the improved ESISTEM-VCE method is used to derive the three-dimensional displacements with a simulated experiment we apply our proposed methodology to the case study of the 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule earthquake the relationship between the displacements d0 and di can be expressed as where Δx=xi−x0=[ΔxeiΔxniΔxui]T denotes the vector distance between the ith RP and the arbitrary point P0, H=∂di/∂xi denotes the elements of the displacement gradient tensor. In the SISTEM method, Guglielmino et al. (2011) only used surrounding GPS measurements. Thus, Luo and Chen (2016) proposed the ESISTEM method where both surrounding GPS and InSAR measurements can be used in deriving displacements The linear equation for the ESISTEM method can be expressed as where d is the column observation vector, A is the design matrix, X is the column vector of unknown parameters, and e is the observation error vector. The expressions of the vectors or matrices are shown in the Appendix A. The detailed information about formula derivation can be referred to Luo and Chen (2016) and descending InSAR measurements can be together used to extract the three-dimensional surface deformation field the data sets are divided into three groups based on their properties The corresponding coefficient matrices are A1 where dn is the distance between the ith RP and the point of interest P0, and dj are distance–decaying constants for GPS, ascending, and descending InSAR measurements, respectively (Guglielmino et al., 2011) which is evaluated with the following empirical formula: which takes into account the obvious spatial scale differences among different data sets and shows the other main difference from Wang Y. et al. (2021). As Guglielmino et al. (2011) described in the paper Ki is the set of Q nearest stations in the circle centered at the i station for different data sets we also refer to it that Q ranges between four and six Let Nj=AjTWj′Aj, Lj=AjTWj′dj and N=∑13Nj, L=∑13Lj. With the weighted least square method (WLS) (He et al., 2018; Wang and Gu, 2020), the estimated unknown vector X^ can be solved, as shown in Eq. 5 In this paper, we assumed the initial variances for the data sets are σ012, σ022, and σ032, respectively. The relationship between the estimates and the residuals sum of squares (RSS) of observations is (Cui et al., 2001; Xu et al., 2009) θ^=[σ^012σ^022σ^032]T, Wθ=[V1TW1′V1V2TW2′V2V3TW3′V3]T, where n1, n2, and n3 are the numbers of the GPS measurements, ascending, and descending ALOS InSAR results. The solution of Eq. 6 can be expressed as iteration is needed to obtain an accurate solution by adjusting the weight as follows: where c is an arbitrary positive constant, which usually can be assumed to be σ^012. The iteration will not stop until the variance components are almost identical, i.e. σ^012≈σ^022≈σ^032. In the final, the weights from the last iteration are used to determine the optimal three-dimensional surface displacement field with Eq. 5 S8: Go to S0 until the points in the studied area are all solved and unbiassed Gaussian noises with standard deviations of 3 and 5 mm are added to the horizontal and vertical displacements The simulated data used in the simulation experiments (B–D) The simulated three-dimensional displacement field according to the elastic half-space dislocation theory (E,F) The simulated ascending and descending InSAR displacements Figure 4 shows the average three-dimensional displacement fields of 400 tests which are obtained by Monte Carlo simulation using the ESISTEM-VCE and ESISTEM methods It can be found that the derived displacements are both consistent with the simulated ones the displacements of E-W and U components from the ESISTEM method are underestimated The results from the ESISTEM-VCE method are closer to the simulated values and smoother than those from ESISTEM method in three components Solutions of ESISTEM-VCE and ESISTEM methods for simulation example The upper row (A-C) is from the ESISTEM-VCE method the low row (D-F)is from the ESISTEM method To quantitatively evaluate the performance of both methods Xsub are the simulated displacements in three components and X^sub are the derived ones from the ESISTEM-VCE and ESISTEM methods Table 2 shows the average RMSEs in three components from different methods. Meanwhile, Figure 5 displays the RMSEs for 400 tests the RMSEs of the three-dimensional displacements from the ESISTEM-VCE method are lower than those from the ESISTEM method It is obvious that the RMSE of the N-S component is larger than those of the E-W and U components and the accuracy and improvement are worse than the other two components This is mainly because the LOS displacement is not sensitive to the north-south direction and the N-S displacement is mainly constrained by the GPS data The RMSEs for the EISISTEM-VCE and ESISTEM methods The RMSEs for three components from ESISTEM-VCE and ESISTEM methods with 400 Monte Carlo simulations The black and green lines represent the RMSEs of the ESISTEM-VCE and ESISTEM methods The subfigures in E-W and U components are partial enlarged view Furthermore, we assumed that the distance–decaying constants for the ascending and descending InSAR measurements are the same as that of GPS measurements in the ESISTEM-VCE method, which is named ESISTEM-VCE (same d0) method. This method is used to compare and verify the significance of the different d0 for different data sets that differ in their spatial scales. The RMSEs are also listed in Table 2 and the improvements are slightly lower than those of ESISTEM-VCE method which shows that the ESISTEM-VCE performs best it is critical to give them different distance–decaying constants which can be supported by the improvements a good tradeoff between the accuracies and the number of RPs can be obtained with 50–60 RPs Detailed information on data acquisition and processing can be found in the references above The distribution of the data set used in this study (A) The GPS data; the black line denotes the area of three-dimensional displacement to be estimated Figures 8A–F show the three-dimensional surface displacement fields for the Maule earthquake with GPS and InSAR data derived from ESISTEM-VCE and ESISTEM methods. The derived displacement field is in the hanging wall of the ruptured fault that occurs on the subduction interface, whose strike angle is N16.8°E according to Tong et al. (2010) (J–L) Three-dimensional displacement field derived from the continuous GPS and LOS data with the ESISTEM-VCE method (M–O) Three-dimensional displacement field derived from the continuous GPS and LOS data with the ESISTEM method Compared to the E-W deformation, the magnitude of the N-S deformation (Figure 8B) is significantly small and the spatial distribution is different from the E-W component the most significant deformation of N-S is located around the epicenter while that of E-W is at the north of the epicenter The displacement along the coastline moves southward with a maximum displacement of 72.5 cm while that away from the coastline moves northward InSAR observations could detect more deformation information that can not be obtained by a single data source This implies that the InSAR data can better complement the GPS data in the extraction of three-dimensional displacement Figures 8D–F present the three-dimensional surface displacement field from the ESISTEM method It is noticeable that the deformation characteristics are similar to those of the ESISTEM-VCE method the magnitude of the vertical displacements is underestimated especially in the north or south of the epicenter which is consistent with the situation in the simulation examples This should be attributed to the inaccurate weight ratio among the GPS with their corresponding uncertainties also given It shows that the displacements from the ESISTEM-VCE method are closer to the field investigations than those from ESISTEM method The overall uncertainties of the ESISTEM-VCE method are smaller than those of ESISTEM method We obtained the RMSEs between the derived vertical displacements and field investigations and they are 32.1 and 44.5 cm for ESISTEM-VCE and ESISTEM methods an improvement of 27.9% is achieved by the ESISTEM-VCE method which should be attributed to the more accurate variance and weight estimations of the InSAR and GPS measurements Comparison among the vertical displacements measured from field investigation derived from the ESISTEM-VCE and the ESISTEM methods The error bars denote the 2σ uncertainties in which the fault plane is divided into 200 subfaults of 25 × 25 km with a large scale the similar deformation patterns suggest that the derived results from GPS and InSAR data using the ESISTEM-VCE method are reasonable This demonstrates that the VCE method is still capable of determining the accurate relative weights between GPS and ALOS data sets It also manifests that the N-S displacement is mostly constrained by the GPS observations and the campaign GPS observations play a dominant role in the reconstruction of precise three-dimensional surface deformation In addition, the three-dimensional displacement field derived from the ESISTEM-VCE (same d0) method is shown in Figure 10, with the distance-decaying constants for ascending and descending InSAR measurements are same as that of GPS data. Figure 10 shows a deformation pattern similar to Figures 8A–C The RMSE between the vertical displacements from ESISTEM-VCE (same d0) and the field investigations is also obtained The comparisons of 27.9 and 20.9% show that the distance–decaying constants of different data sets should be considered This also implies that the ESISTEM-VCE method is effective Three-dimensional surface displacement field derived from the ESISTEM-VCE method with the same distance–decaying constants for GPS and InSAR data The three-dimensional displacement could provide insights into the motion of the tsunami from the similar decaying trend and be used to make up for insufficient spatial resolution of the coastal uplift measured from bleached lithothamnioids crustose coralline algae or GPS stations The three-dimensional displacement field is significant for understanding the characteristics of the seismogenic fault by providing enlightenment of the earthquake rupture This study develops an improved ESISTEM-VCE method which is a tight integration of GPS and InSAR data to derive the three-dimensional displacement field the ESISTEM-VCE method can exploit the spatial correlation of the displacement among adjacent points and determine accurate relative weights between different data sets the ESISTEM-VCE method can take full advantage of the information about the precision of the GPS measurements and the differences of the spatial scales for different data sets the ESISTEM-VCE method can be applied to derive the three-dimensional displacement associated with a transient event such as an earthquake Simulated experiments are firstly carried out to validate the method the accurate coseismic three-dimensional displacement field of the 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule earthquake is successfully retrieved for the first time by a combination of GPS and InSAR data The comparison with the land-level changes from the field investigation also validates that the ESISTEM-VCE method is feasible and valid The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author final approval of the version to be submitted This work is co-supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No the National Key Research Development Program of China (Grant No The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher The linear equation for the ESISTEM method is the Sm(m=ASC/DES) in the matrix A is composed of the projection coefficients that for the ascending/descending InSAR measurements from E-W where ε and ω representing strain tensor and rigid body rotation tensor On the Strength of Interplate Coupling and the Rate of Back Arc Convergence in the Central Andes: an Analysis of the Interseismic Velocity Field CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Google Scholar Dach, R., Hugentobler, U., Fridez, P., and Meindl, M. 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Volume 12 - 2024 | https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2024.1354058 Assessing the potential and extent of earthquake-induced liquefaction is paramount for seismic hazard assessment for the large ground deformations it causes can result in severe damage to infrastructure and pose a threat to human lives as evidenced by many contemporary and historical case studies in various tectonic settings using state-of-the-art soil constitutive models and numerical frameworks has proven to be a tailored methodology for liquefaction assessment these simulations allow for the dynamic response of liquefiable soils in terms of effective stresses and ground displacements to be captured in a consistent manner with experimental and in-situ observations the impact of soil properties spatial variability in liquefaction response can be assessed because the system response to waves propagating are naturally incorporated within the model we highlight that the effect of shear-wave velocity Vs spatial variability has not been thoroughly assessed In a case study in Metropolitan Concepción our research addresses the influence of Vs spatial variability on the dynamic response to liquefaction the 2010 Maule Mw 8.8 megathrust Earthquake triggered liquefaction-induced damage in the form of ground cracking Using simulated 2D Vs profiles generated from real 1D profiles retrieved with ambient noise methods along with a PressureDependentMultiYield03 sand constitutive model we studied the effect of Vs spatial variability on pore pressure generation and shear and volumetric strains by performing effective stress site response analyses Our findings indicate that increased Vs variability reduces the median settlements and strains for soil units that exhibit liquefaction-like responses no significant changes in the dynamic response are observed in soil units that exhibit non-liquefaction behavior implying that the triggering of liquefaction is not influenced by spatial variability in Vs We infer that when liquefaction-like behavior is triggered an increase of the damping at the shallowest part of the soil domain might be the explanation for the decrease in the amplitude of the strains and settlements as the degree of Vs variability increases such as the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and the Cone Penetration Test (CPT) are commonly carried out for the characterization of the soil structure because the measurements provided by these tests correlate to essential parameters that control the liquefaction potential of the soil Shear-wave velocity Vs measurements are also commonly conducted to constrain the soil’s elastic properties The performance of these methods has significantly improved when coupling geotechnical data (CPT and SPT) with Vs measurements Vs is an essential parameter for wave propagation problems because it governs seismic wave amplitude and constrains the stress-strain response of soil units there is a limited exploration of the influence of Vs spatial variability in liquefaction response through nonlinear effective stress analyses to assess the impact of different levels of variance on the dynamic response of the soil in terms of excess pore water pressure The dashed light-green circle encapsulates our study site The yellow cross depicts the location of strong-motion station CCP from which the earthquake ground motion was deconvolved to use as input for the site response analysis the basin consists mostly of layers of poorly graded (SP) and silty sands (SM) that were uniformly deposited with non-plastic fines (approximately 22% fine content) This information was gathered from various boreholes conducted across the city layers of low-plasticity or no-plasticity silts (ML) ranging from 1 to 4 m thick can be found at different depths throughout the basin indicating that they were deposited during a period of low velocity in the Bío-Bío River Magenta triangles depict the positions of seismic sensors black lines connecting them show the station pairs from which dispersion curves shown in (B) were retrieved The dashed red line represents the T-T′ cross-section employed in the numerical model right: Distribution of all Rayleigh Wave dispersion curves across the study site Cyan stars illustrate the location of the geotechnical borehole tests we introduce the seismic interferometry technique in a broad way we explain how through cross-correlations in the time-domain a representation of the Green Function can be obtained we explain the SPAC technique and the assumptions for which it is valid we establish a connection between the time-domain cross-correlation method and the frequency-domain SPAC method The aforementioned approach is based on time-domain cross-correlation. However, a similar method, called SPatial AutoCorrelation (SPAC, Aki (1957) states that if the noise wavefield is stochastic and stationary in space and time the azimuthal average of the cross-correlation in the frequency domain (i.e. the cross-coherence CC) for a fixed distance r at frequency ω is related to the Rayleigh wave phase velocity c(ω) by This approach allows for the exploration of various parameterizations in order to determine the optimal number of layers that suitably fit the data it ensures that no layers begin below the wavelength-defined spatial resolution The best-constrained solution can be selected by minimizing the misfit between the data and the prediction and a measurement of the inter-parameterization uncertainty can be obtained from the N-lowest misfit solutions (e.g. We inverted ground profiles for each dispersion curve using a generic algorithm (Yamanaka and Ishida, 1996; Parolai et al., 2005) with parameterizations consisting of 3 with the deepest layer representing the half-space base The Vs lower and upper bounds of each layer (regardless of their depth) were set to depend on the lower and upper values of the dispersion curve ranging from approximately 100 to 350 m/s for the upper sedimentary layers and up to 450 m/s for the half-space layer As the generic algorithm is part-probabilistic each dispersion curve was inverted using 12 seeds resulting in a total of 36 inversions for each curve considering the different numbers of layers used through visual inspection of the ground profiles and their goodness-of-fit to the data we determined the number of layers most adequate for each curve and identified the representative ground profile as the one exhibiting the lowest misfit with respect to the dispersion curve we estimated the inter-model uncertainty by calculating σln,vs representing the logarithm of the standard deviation of the velocity (A) Top panels: The ground profiles inverted from the dispersion curves displayed in the lower panels Grey profiles show the lowest misfit solution for each seed The red profile is the lowest-misfit solution for all seeds The dashed blue line represents the logarithm of the standard deviation of Vs (B) Lower panels: Dispersion curve fit (dotted black line) by each ground profile Colors represent the same as at the top panels We used a simple merging scheme to quantify the spatial variability of Vs from the ground profiles, reminiscent of the approximative tomographic inversion proposed in Kissling (1988). First, we divided the site into a rectangular grid of 35 m in the x direction and 42 m in the y direction (Figure 5) Assuming that the surface waves travel along straight lines linking each pair of receivers the velocity profile corresponding to each grid cell is obtained by weighting all the ground profiles corresponding to pairs of stations whose interstation path passes through it The weighting scheme takes into account the length of each ray within the grid cell and the σln,vs of each profile the ground profile associated with the ray with the longest length within a specific grid cell carries greater weight than rays crossing shorter distances in the same grid cell ground profiles with lower values of σln,vs for a given depth also have greater weight for a given cell that is crossed by n rays of cell length l and logarithmic standard deviation σz at a given depth where the subindex s of the shear-wave velocity term Vs is omitted here for clarity. Equation 4 ensures that rays covering more distance within a cell carry more weight that short interstation distance models have more weight at shallow depths and that large interstation distance models have more weight at greater depths FIGURE 5. The velocity structure of the site calculated by the weighting scheme. (A–C), leftmost top panels: Average Vs structure at depths of (0–10 [m]), (10–20 [m]) and (20–30 [m]), respectively. In (A–C), the X and Y coordinates are within the coordinate system of Figure 3A top right: Distribution of ground profiles averaged on each grid to obtain the weighted ground profile lower left: The weighted ground profiles of all grids Three representative profiles of different ground conditions are depicted with red rightmost lower panels: Black and orange ground motion and their Fourier spectrums depict the CCP EW station recording and its deconvolution to 50 m depth The black profile represents cells directly adjacent to the buildings The blue profile represents cells in the ground area between the buildings The red profile represents cells south of the buildings As severe liquefaction was observed near buildings A and B in 2010 the red profile (soils not consolidated by heavy machinery prior to reconstruction) is considered the most representative of the free-field natural conditions that existed for our simulations TABLE 1. Joint ground profile obtained by merging the median profile from this work and the uppermost two layers of the profile derived in Inzunza et al. (2019) we fixed the pore-water pressure degree-of-freedom at the surface level We highlight from the abovementioned literature that (1) the model assumes that elastic and plastic deformations occur simultaneously in the soil and the elastic behavior is linear and isotropic while the plastic behavior is nonlinear and anisotropic and (2) the soil nonlinear shear stress-strain response is defined in the octahedral space in the following manner: the pressure-dependent small-strain shear modulus Gmaxp is defined by where Gmax is the input shear modulus computed with Equation 1 at a reference effective confining stress pr′ d is the pressure-dependent coefficient set to 0.5 and p′ is the effective confining stress that varies during the earthquake loading shear modulus reduction curves are computed using a hyperbolic relationship given by Pressure Dependent Multi Yield 03 model parameters employed in this research To simulate Vs heterogeneity and wave attenuation, we followed the method of de la Torre et al. (2022a); de la Torre et al. (2022b). We generated perturbations of the 1D Vs profile shown in Figure 5E using spatially anisotropic correlated Gaussian random fields with varying σln,vs values to simulate different levels of heterogeneity The parameters that we need to define to achieve this are the following: • The logarithm of the standard deviation of the velocity σln,vs: Here we set five different values: 0.075, 0.125, 0.175, 0.225, and 0.275, to simulate conditions with very low to high variance. Values mentioned in de la Torre et al. (2022a), and references therein range from 0.1 to 0.37. The σln,vs values obtained for our profiles in Figure 4 vary roughly from 0.04 to 0.23 consistent with the aforementioned literature and the values chosen We run 20 simulations per level of variance • The horizontal rH and vertical rV correlation lengths were set to 15 and 2 m. This is within the bounds of values previously used for generating heterogeneous Vs random fields. (Popescu, 1995; Assimaki et al., 2003; de la Torre et al., 2022a) An exponential function was used to simulate the spatial correlation depends on the Vs value of the element and the maximum frequency of the input motion: hmax=Vs4fmax As the shear modulus degrades in nonlinear problems this implies that Vs will decrease as the simulations progress to ensure that our elements do not exceed their theoretical maximum size we further divided hmax by a factor of 4 to account for this phenomenon and guarantee that a sufficient number of elements cover one wavelength at all times We now describe and analyze the simulation results from five simulation outputs: • The volumetric strain ϵv defined as the mean of the vertical and horizontal strains • The excess pore-water pressure ratio ru defined as the difference between the current and initial pore-water pressure divided by the overburden effective stress Threshold values previously defined in the literature for liquefaction triggering are between 80% and 100% for ru, and between 3% and 5% for the shear strains (Ishihara, 1993; Boulanger et al., 1998; Bray and Sancio, 2006) FIGURE 7. Maximum shear strain (A), volumetric strain (B), excess pore-water pressure ratio (C), horizontal acceleration (D), and settlements (E) for the benchmark model realization shown in Figure 6. The magenta numbered circles represent the locations of the three nodes depicted in Figure 8 FIGURE 8. Recorder acceleration, excess pore-water pressure, and stress-strain time series of the numbered nodes of Figure 7 and blue color codes represent the first 15 s of motion node 3 is embedded in a zone of dense sands which are less susceptible to liquefaction compared to the layers in which nodes 1 and 2 are situated and uz of all simulations as a function of the distance along the cross-section at a depth of 2 m The cross-section’s nine nodes—five positioned to the west and four to the east—display distinct behaviors we conduct separate analyses for the two cases the high ru (80–100%) values for all σln,vs levels are indicative of liquefaction behavior we can see that an increase in σln,vs leads to a decrease in the median maximum γ and ϵv a slight reduction in the median maximum uz is observed at the nodes x = 46 [m] and x = 54 [m] as σln,vs drops This tendency is not observed for the rest of the western nodes and the median maximum uz values are very similar no significant changes in the median maximum ru values are observed Horizontal black lines near the x-axis represent the locations of towers A and B relative to the cross-section It can be appreciated as well that starting from t > 40s the higher median ru values happen for σln,vs=0.075 FIGURE 10. All simulations of shear strain (A), volumetric strain (B), vertical displacement (C), and excess pore-water pressure ratio (D) time series computed for the node at the western node at position x = 54 and depth of 2 m, depicted in Figure 9 Color-coded time series represent the median time series at different levels of σln,vs Black curves represent all simulations’ 20-th and 80-th percentile time series and the shallow eastern part of the domain corresponds to units with high relative density it can be inferred that Vs spatial variability may not alter the soil’s intrinsic response to liquefaction This response is likely primarily controlled by the soil’s mechanical properties and the earthquake loading our results support the notion that Vs spatial variability does not play a primary role in liquefaction triggering but rather influences the liquefaction response when liquefaction is already ongoing where significant liquefaction was observed between 7 and 8 m depth Even though larger shear strains close to 10% are appreciated the median time series do not exhibit a clear relationship between σln,vs and the developed shear strains we propose that the influence of σln,vs on the liquefaction response becomes relevant in the following circumstances: The ground motion intensity is strong enough to trigger nonlinear behavior and significant ru values The mechanical properties of the soil allow liquefaction to occur The median Vs of the soil at a given depth is sufficient to allow significant damping when subjected to large (e.g. >1) shear strains for a given ground motion intensity we can expect to see even more diversity on Vs signatures We suggest that the effect of Vs heterogeneities on near-surface deformations may be more significant in these cases compared to our study These values also do not match the observations but are more in alignment with what we obtained Vertical settlements computed with empirical relationships exhibit mismatches with observations because they (1) assume free-field conditions (2) only consider volumetric-induced settlements and (3) cannot reproduce the complex system response as numerical modeling does While our modeling considers volumetric and shear-induced settlements and reproduces the system response it was conceived under a free-field assumption We therefore suggest that not accounting for the buildings’ load is the principal reason our simulations underestimate the settlements such as how the seismic load is incorporated into the domain and the constitutive model employed TABLE 3. Mean ± standard deviation of the computed settlements in the western (x = 54 [m]) and eastern (x = 86 [m]) nodes for different levels of Vs spatial variability (in millimeters). Reference values reported in Bray et al. (2010), Bray et al. (2012) are also included We performed effective stress analyses (ESSRAs) at the Los Presidentes site which experienced liquefaction damage during the 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule Earthquake in order to assess the effects of Vs heterogeneities on liquefaction response at the site we identified three distinct velocity profiles consistent with the geological setting of Metropolitan Concepcion Using the profile that most accurately represented free-field conditions we generated 2D Vs heterogeneous model realizations at various levels of σln,vs using Gaussian correlated random fields Our simulation results demonstrate that increasing σln,vs in near-surface soil elements which exhibit nonlinear and liquefaction-like behavior due to earthquake-induced pore-water pressure buildup leads to a decrease in median maximum shear We argue that when nonlinear behavior begins an increase in damping at the element level is responsible for this reduction in the computed measurements the influence of σln,vs on the liquefaction response is more pronounced at shallow depths where both Vs values and the confining pressure values are lower because the damping of the soil is stiffness-dependent increasing σln,vs did not significantly alter the deformation patterns of soil elements that exhibit non-liquefaction behavior This implies that Vs influence on liquefaction triggering is minimal and that the soil’s mechanical properties and the intensity of the seismic motion are the primary factors in determining whether liquefaction is triggered or not In the frame of liquefaction hazard assessment the maximum computed settlements at the 20-th and 80-th percentiles were 41 and 53 mm This highlights a significant difference considering that our simulations were conducted without accounting for the building’s load and that the computed maximum shear strains were relatively small (<3%) We infer that for higher amplitude ground motions and softer soil conditions Vs variability may play an important role in the final settlements and deformations While our findings are within the frame of a case study of liquefaction due to a megathrust earthquake this analysis can be extended to other tectonic and geotechnical environments we encourage researchers to thoroughly characterize the velocity structure of a site when conducting ESSRAs for past or expected liquefaction case studies as Vs heterogeneities which are expected to be found in the scale of liquefaction problems can significantly alter the dynamic response of liquefiable soils The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research This work was supported within the funding programme “Open Access Publikationskosten” Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG German Research Foundation) - Project Number 291075472 the Millennium Nucleus CYCLO (The Seismic Cycle Along Subduction Zones) project the Millennium Scientific Initiative (ICM) of the Chilean Government grant NC160025 and the Chilean Scientific and Technological Development Support Fund (FONDEF) grants ID16I20157 and ID22I10032 This work was strongly supported by the Geophysics Master’s degree program at the University of Concepción Robert Kayen for sharing the LiDAR picture of the Los Presidentes Site and Katerina Ziotopolou for providing valuable insights at different stages of this research We very much appreciate the support of the STKO Team for providing guidance through the simulation steps with STKO-OpenSEES and the innovative tools they developed that helped our analyses Javier Mora and Alfonso Núñez for their invaluable help in carrying out the field measurements We would like to express our gratitude to the reviewers for their valuable input and constructive feedback on this research The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2024.1354058/full#supplementary-material Space and time spectra of stationary stochastic waves Google Scholar Attenuation of shear-waves in the lithosphere for frequencies from 0.05 to 25 Hz CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Liquefaction resistance of soils from shear-wave velocity doi:10.1061/(asce)1090-0241(2000)126:11(1015) CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Topography effects in the 1999 Athens earthquake: Engineering issues in seismology Google Scholar CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Effects of spatial variability of soil properties on surface ground motion CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Array estimators and the use of microseisms for reconnaissance of sedimentary basins CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Ground movement patterns and shallow foundation performance in Iskenderun coastline during the 2023 Kahramanmaras earthquake sequence CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar System response of an interlayered deposit with spatially preferential liquefaction manifestations CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar System response of an interlayered deposit with a localized graben deformation in the Northridge earthquake CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Processing seismic ambient noise data to obtain reliable broad-band surface wave dispersion measurements CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Theory of propagation of elastic waves in a fluid-saturated porous solid CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Bonnefoy-Claudet The nature of noise wavefield and its applications for site effects studies: a literature review CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar CPT and SPT based liquefaction triggering procedures Google Scholar Behavior of a fine-grained soil during the Loma Prieta earthquake CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Nonlinear deformation analyses of an embankment dam on a spatially variable liquefiable deposit CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Geo-Engineering reconnaissance of the 2010 Maule PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Seismic performance of a building affected by moderate liquefaction during the Christchurch earthquake CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Assessment of the liquefaction susceptibility of fine-grained soils doi:10.1061/(asce)1090-0241(2006)132:9(1165) CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar A seismological study of the 1835 seismic gap in south-central Chile CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Chávez-García On the correlation of seismic microtremors CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Chávez-García An alternative approach to the SPAC analysis of microtremors: exploiting stationarity of noise CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Layering ratios: a systematic approach to the inversion of surface wave data in the absence of a priori information CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Seismic interferometry—turning noise into signal CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Numerical simulation of building response on liquefiable sand CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar 2d Geotechnical site-response analysis including soil heterogeneity and wave scattering CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Can modeling soil heterogeneity in 2D site response analyses improve predictions at vertical array sites CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Emergeo Working Group (2013). 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February 2024 Copyright © 2024 Núñez-Jara, Montalva, Pilz, Miller, Saldaña, Olivar-Castaño and Araya. 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All Rights Reserved. Glasgow Chamber of Commerce is British Chamber of Commerce Accredited.Website by Beam Digital and Design Volume 7 - 2023 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1241648 This article is part of the Research TopicAgrobiodiversity, Community Participation and Landscapes in AgroecologyView all 14 articles The simplification of the landscape as a consequence of the decrease in biodiversity and the adoption of monoculture production systems has led to a significant decrease in the provision of ecosystem services in the territory The conversion of agroecosystems requires the adoption of agroecological techniques which aim to design the agroecosystem as an integrated part of a vegetation matrix of the landscape interconnecting the different production systems with the agricultural landscape In order to measure the degree of connectivity of agroecosystems with the landscape we used the Main Agroecological Structure (MAS) method which was applied to 36 small agroecosystems of vegetable which generally presented a low degree of connectivity This allows us to evaluate the potential of these systems for agroecological transition since being present in a moderately complex agricultural landscape gives important advantages over a more simplified system allowing these producers to dispense with the use of many energy subsidies This evaluation allows a first approximation to the quantification of the landscape matrix and will allow a comparison between agroecosystems or an evaluation of the evolution of the MAS over time It is necessary to complement the MAS by quantifying the ecosystem services that may be associated with it In the face of growing evidence that agricultural sustainability at the agroecosystem scale largely depends on the management of the cultivated and uncultivated diversity of the surrounding landscape (Scherr and Mcneely, 2008; Garibaldi et al., 2016; Tamburini et al., 2020; Garibaldi et al., 2021) our hypothesis is that smallholder agroecosystems that use agroecological practices and are surrounded by a moderately heterogeneous matrix have better attributes to initiate the agroecological transition process at the community level The objective of our study is to validate the MAS as a useful methodology for characterizing the landscape of the participating agroecosystems and how these are related to the application of agroecological practices in a context of agroecological transition of a group of farmers in the Maule region specifically the area near the commune of San Clemente In order to characterize and analyze the relationship between the agroecosystems of the Maule region, specifically the area near the municipality of San Clemente and the surrounding landscape, the methodology proposed by León-Sicard et al. (2018) is used to characterize the design of agroecosystems and their relationship with the surrounding landscape over time in an integrated manner The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to assess significant differences between agroecosystem types Qualitative and quantitative methods were combined to analyze the biophysical and agroecological conditions present in each agroecosystem The following tools were used for data collection Two extended workshops were held with a total of 65 farmers from the Maule region This workshop defined the main problems and strengths of the group and some possible collective strategies for agroecological transition Surveys were conducted in each of the agroecosystems studied (N = 36), using a questionnaire consisting of closed multiple-choice questions and some open-ended questions (Córdoba et al., 2020). This allowed a greater degree of flexibility and depth in obtaining information (more details in the Supplementary material) The workshops initially identified some of the problems that the group of participating farmers identified as priorities in their agroecosystem, see Table 3 including the lack of support for agroecological transition from the state and its agencies The increase in external inputs and the general devaluation of traditional knowledge of the farmers were some of the most frequent observations made in the workshops held the Mediterranean agroecosystems studied cover an average area of 1.96 ± 0.1 ha with a low presence of native vegetation patches and water bodies within the agroecosystems and in the surrounding landscape reaching no more than 4.0 ± 0.2% of the total area studied covered by native forest and 0.3 ± 0.05% of the total area with water bodies Most of the native vegetation types present are of the renoval type of sclerophyll forest with formations dominated by Cryptocarya alba (Chilean peumo) The connection between the agroecosystems and the few surrounding patches of native vegetation or water bodies present was low or zero as can be seen from the average distance between the patches and the center of each agroecosystem [DFFCF DBWCF] where only for horticulture patches of water bodies and native vegetation were found Boxplot by type of agroecosystems evaluated The research process allowed us, through the application of the MAS methodology, to know in detail the management that each farmer carries out in his agroecosystem. A set of 11 practices was identified (see Table 5) recognized for their positive contribution to key ecological functions for Mediterranean agricultural systems natural regulation of pest organisms and weed control At least 50% of the agroecosystems studied use spatial and temporal diversification as a strategy to maintain soil fertility These strategies include at least 3 agroecological practices crop diversification in the agroecosystem [73.5%] and integration of the animal component [67.6%] Natural pest regulation is another key element in agroecosystems with Mediterranean in the group no strategies developed to optimize this ecological process were identified crop association [70.6%] and the inclusion of aromatic plants [55.8%] It is important to highlight the use of chemical products in an important group of agroecosystems [76%] to replace the ecological processes of soil fertility and natural pest regulation The MAS values recorded ranged from 35 to 79 indicating a gradient between the agroecosystems studied with one group with a poorly developed agroecological structure and considerable cultural potential and another group with an agroecological structure in a moderately developed state with management differences observed between the agroecosystems studied and a high degree of isolation from the ecological structure of the surrounding landscape Geospatial location and assesment MAS of Mediterranean agroecosystems in the Region del Maule The use of maps and other GIS tools allowed for a participatory characterization of the landscape surrounding the agroecosystems studied, working together with farmers to identify strengths and weaknesses at the landscape scale. In this context, the MAS methodology allows aspects of landscape composition and configuration to be observed in an integrated manner, allowing for the standardization and local refinement of the landscape metrics used (Liere et al., 2017) Including the perspective of the farmers’ group (PA) on what they perceive as environmental degradation and biodiversity loss which was little developed at the beginning of the workshops conducted farmers also recognize an important individual and collective capacity for action (CA) that could significantly improve what is done in their production units A transversal characteristic of the agroecosystems studied is the integration of the animal component which in practice is observed as different land uses (USC) in the agroecosystem where these agrosilvopastoral subsystems are included using an average area of less than 50% of each farm studied Management of Weeds (MW) is mostly conventional where mechanical control and the use of herbicides for weed control predominate the agroecosystems are characterized by conventional management could serve as a basis for conversion to agroecological systems The use of landscape metrics for the construction of MAS, through methodological tools such as the creation of collective maps, makes it easier for farmers to understand the importance of the internal and external connectivity of the biodiversity of each agroecosystem with the agricultural matrix that surrounds it (Cattaneo et al., 2018) these tools allow researchers and other stakeholders to visualize some of the most common and necessary technical issues that need to be addressed in each context which allow a better understanding of the impact of management on the agroecological landscape of all actors involved in this research a complex and non-linear process that requires attention This study allowed us to characterize the main agroecological structure of the agroecosystems of the Maule region The MAS methodology was useful to understand the partial complexity of the agroecosystems and their surrounding landscapes which are generally in a slightly developed state This evaluation is an important first input for a second level of research whose objective is to answer if indeed the agricultural systems surrounded by a complex landscape matrix and that correctly apply agroecological practices present a better provision of ecosystem services in their properties And where the MAS plays a valuable role in facilitating a complex learning process between the different actors of the territory The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material AS-R conceived and designed the experiments and authored or reviewed drafts of the paper RC-H conceived and designed the experiments All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version We are grateful to the Local Development Program (PRODESAL-SAN CLEMENTE) The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1241648/full#supplementary-material Google Scholar From the Holocene to the Anthropocene: a historical framework for land cover change in southwestern South America in the past 15 The 10 elements of agroecology: enabling transitions towards sustainable agriculture and food systems through visual narratives Can agroecology improve food security and nutrition Ecological intensification: harnessing ecosystem services for food security Global trends in nature’s contributions to people Bünemann Agriculture production as a major driver of the earth system exceeding planetary boundaries Plant biodiversity promotes sustainable agriculture directly and via belowground effects The dysfunctionalities of industrial agriculture and the loss of the circular bioeconomy in the Barcelona region Cleves-Leguízamo La Estructura Agroecológica Principal (EAP): novedosa herramienta para planeación del uso de la tierra en agroecosistemas Catastro de los Recursos Vegetacionales Nativos de Chile al año (2020) Departamento de Monitoreo de Ecosistemas Forestales Google Scholar Córdoba A conceptual and methodological framework for evaluation Díaz-Hormazábal Spatio-temporal analyses of wildfires in the region of Maule CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Functional landscape heterogeneity and animal biodiversity in agricultural landscapes FAO. 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This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) *Correspondence: Angel Salazar-Rojas, YW5nZWxAYWdyb2Vjb3Npc3RlbWFzLmNs †These authors have contributed equally to this work and share last authorship Receive emails when new obituariesare published to our website Each of our funeral homes offers a complete range of services in tastefully decorated Professionally trained and licensed staff members stand ready to provide sensitive caring service and strive to exceed the expectations of each and every family.Our communities are wonderfully diverse in religious beliefs Our staff truly appreciates these differences and our training includes heartfelt understanding and respect for the special needs of all whom we serve Hartford | Windsor | Poquonock | Granby | Suffield | South Windsor | Rockville | Vernon | Avon© Carmon Community Funeral Homes | Funeral Home Website Design By Frazer Consultants & TA Your browser may not work with certain site. 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Maule has a couple of new airplanes for the new year -- well two slightly different models on the same airframe The M-4 180V S2 and S4 are typical Maule: STOL performance The bigdifference between the two it the seating The S2 model is a side-by-side two-seater and the S4 can carry a pilot plus three Max gross weight for both models is 2,300 pounds giving the S2 a useful load of 950 pounds (925 lbs The M-4 180V gets through the air with the 180hp Lycoming O-360 and a 76" constant speed Hartzell prop Performance is also the same for both M-4 models and it's what you might expect from a rugged little tail dragger Cruise at 75% power will get you around 116kts Stall in landing configuration is down around 37kts Average range with a 30-minute reserve is 477nm with the two standard 21.5 gallon tanks The optional long-range tanks (73 useable gallons total) will stretch that to 810nm The exception isthe J.P Instruments EDM-900 Engine Data Management System glass engine display Cargo capacity can be as much as 38 cubic feet though that requires removing the rear seats in the S4 version Access to cargo space is two clam-shell style doors to allow for stowing longer items Base price is $199,900 for the S2 and $203,900 for the S4 Learn more at Maule Air. Get the latest Plane & Pilot Magazine stories delivered directly to your inbox Privacy Policy Terms of Service Davenport Family Funeral Home and Crematory Enter your phone number above to have directions sent via text has added four new variations to a product line of aircraft based on a design that has stood the test of time including a two-seater with 900 pounds of useful load and an introductory price of $199,900 Maule Air is among the oldest airplane makers in continuous production, if not the oldest, having produced airplanes for 55 years since the first M-4, known as the Jetasen, was delivered in 1962. Family patriarch B.D. Maule designed the taildragger for “serious pilots who fly for the love of it,” as the Moultrie, Georgia-based company notes on its website The design that features a rugged steel tube truss fuselage and short-field capabilities has sustained the company through thick and thin—the reliable machine evolved with care (and many late nights in the family factory) into new models with an instantly recognizable heritage Maules can be found today in more than 50 countries and supporting the fleet with parts helped sustain the family business through economic downturns After 75 years in the aviation business (B.D a non-destructive aircraft fabric tester that remains in production) and 55 years of continuous aircraft production the family remains as committed as ever to producing rugged and capable airplanes that fly well and are suited for many missions Maule Air announced new variations on the long-running theme an updated M-4-180V S2 (two seats) and S4 (four seats) with a 180-horsepower Lycoming O-360 engine turning a Hartzell constant speed propeller “It’s different,” said Brent Maule “It’s got our classic round tail,” he added noting the new M-4 models are a “reintroduction of our original model with a lot of changes made to it.” The modern M-4s feature a 38-cubic-foot cargo area accessed with huge double doors and an available supplemental type certificate to run on automotive fuel The new M-4 180V S2 has an introductory price of $199,900 “We’ve got the first one going through the production line right now,” Maule said “It’ll be ready late spring or early summer.” The M-9 models all offer heavy hauling capability with useful loads in the vicinity of 1,100 pounds and a maximum gross weight of 2,800 pounds Heavy-duty aluminum spring gear and metal wings with flaps that can be set to minus-7 degrees for improved cruise performance and a modular cabin design that can be customized for a range of missions are also M-9 hallmarks “The M-9 gives pilots Maule's large cargo capacity and the useful load to fill it up,” Maule said in a January press release The M-9s can carry four adults and 100 pounds of baggage with enough load to spare for more than four hours of fuel The base prices of $297,900 for the M-9-235 (carbureted) $307,900 for the fuel-injected M-9-235 certified in 2012 and $321,900 for the 260-hp version all include “a full gyro panel” and modern engine instrumentation in the form of a JPI EDM 930 engine analyzer and plenty of room for panel customization “We do that purposefully because there’s so much out there that people want,” Maule said in the telephone interview “We don’t want to lock them into something that they don’t want.” With Maule models flying on every continent except Antarctica the company appears to have done a good job figuring out what customers want we’ve been in the aviation business for 75 years,” Maule said “It’s gotta be a world record by now… 55 years of continuous aircraft production 800.872.2672 AOPA is so passionate about supporting flight schools that we're offering you free countertop displays filled with our annual special issue This beginning pilots' resource guide explains what you can expect from your introductory flight through initial training—and how to turn your dream of flying into reality Get instant access to Flight Training's special issue titled You Can Fly: Your Path to Become a Pilot This beginning pilots' resource guide explains what you can expect from your introductory flight through initial training— and how to turn your dream of flying into reality Please review AOPA’s privacy policy to learn more about how your information is used. Volume 8 - 2020 | https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.585429 Finite-fault models for the 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule Chile earthquake indicate bilateral rupture with large-slip patches located north and south of the epicenter Previous studies also show that this event features significant slip in the shallow part of the megathrust which is revealed through correction of the forward tsunami modeling scheme used in tsunami inversions The presence of shallow slip is consistent with the coseismic seafloor deformation measured off the Maule region adjacent to the trench and confirms that tsunami observations are particularly important for constraining far-offshore slip we benchmark the method of Optimal Time Alignment (OTA) of the tsunami waveforms in the joint inversion of tsunami (DART and tide-gauges) and geodetic (GPS land-leveling) observations for this event We test the application of OTA to the tsunami Green’s functions used in a previous inversion Through a suite of synthetic tests we show that if the bias in the forward model is comprised only of delays in the tsunami signals independently of the sensors (DART or coastal tide-gauges) and The same suite of experiments is repeated for the real case of the 2010 Maule earthquake where despite the results of the synthetic tests This gives an indication of the relative weights to be assigned when jointly inverting the two types of data we show that using OTA is preferable to subjectively correcting possible time mismatch of the tsunami waveforms The results for the source model of the Maule earthquake show that using just the first-order modeling correction introduced by OTA confirms the bilateral rupture pattern around the epicenter shifts the inferred northern patch of slip to a shallower position consistent with the slip models obtained by applying more complex physics-based corrections to the tsunami waveforms This is confirmed by a slip model refined by inverting geodetic and tsunami data complemented with a denser distribution of GPS data nearby the source area The models obtained with the OTA method are finally benchmarked against the observed seafloor deformation off the Maule region We find that all of the models using the OTA well predict this offshore coseismic deformation this benchmarking of the OTA method can be considered successful (A) Tsunami sensors (yellow triangles); (B) fault geometry (black squares) epicenter (red star) and average faulting geometry (red and white focal mechanism) of the 2010 Maule earthquake A–B segment is the ILOCA track (green line) Tsunami data have long provided valuable constraints on the spatial extent of earthquake slip distributions due to them having the slowest propagation velocities of the various wave types (including seismic body and surface waves) used to study submarine sources To exploit the absolute time information in deep-water and tide-gauge tsunami recordings for source inversions one must trust the complete calculation of all known propagation effects through the heterogeneous bathymetric structure from the source region to the tsunami recording system Absolute time alignments will then play a very strong role in the placement of slip in a finite-fault inversion Errors in absolute travel time calculation due to both computational approximations (assumption of great-circle propagation for perturbation type corrections etc.) and any clock errors in the recordings will incorrectly align Green’s functions and data Time alignment shifts for tide-gauges are instead primarily attributed to clock errors or the use of inaccurate/coarse bathymetry models mainly during the last portion of the propagation in very shallow water and there is no set of correction procedures for the predictions to improve absolute time alignment of the tide-gauge observations the first-arrival times are picked in the data and held fixed because the theoretical Green’s functions are so far off in timing the a priori alignments of both deep-water (absolute times) and tide-gauge (fixed picks of arrivals) can have very strong influence on the solution Given the limited precision of regional bathymetric models tide-gauge data are often not used or are severely down-weighted in source inversions being widely distributed along the global coastline can significantly contribute to enhancing the instrumental coverage around the tsunami source thus prospectively helping to study tsunamigenic earthquakes This is particularly important in those regions (e.g. the Mediterranean) where deep-water ocean sensors are not present The OTA method has two strengths: 1) it eliminates the arbitrariness in the time mismatch estimation and 2) it is independent of the cause of the misalignment OTA does not explicitly apply corrective terms to the tsunami propagation and can be used for both deep-water (e.g. waveform variations for both deep-water and tide gauge stations originating from the different placement of slip on the kinematic model provide information that allows a self-consistent model to be found without the strong influence and bias of inaccurate absolute time alignment or fixed onset specification where preliminary tests had indicated that the current data configuration cannot constrain the rupture velocity for this event A different misfit function is used for each dataset. For geodetic data, an L2-norm is used. For tsunami data, we use a nonlinear cost-function sensitive to both waveform amplitude and period (Piatanesi and Lorito, 2007) modified for the OTA method by the introduction of the time parameter T (Romano et al., 2016): In the cost function (1) obs and synt represent the observed and predicted tsunami signals in a time window delimited by t1 and t2; the time parameter T introduces uniform time-shifts between each observed and predicted tsunami waveform during the inversion Positive T values correspond to an earlier arrival of the synthetics Here we assume that the main error sources are the locally coarse bathymetry around the tide-gauges and the modeling approximations for the DARTs The clock errors are considered negligible but if any exist they will map into the values of T The inverse problem is regularized by adding smoothing (through a Laplacian operator) and seismic moment minimization (using the total slip as a proxy for the seismic moment) constraints Lastly, the nonlinear approach allows us to present an average slip model instead of the best one, which could be an outlier not representative of the suite of solutions; this also provides a way to deal with inversion uncertainty (further details are discussed in Piatanesi and Lorito, 2007) The average model is obtained as a weighted mean of a subset of models (ensemble) that satisfactorily fit the data; in particular the average slip distribution is computed by weighting the models within the ensemble by the inverse of their cost function values Extensive use of recordings from deep-water buoy recordings (DART) in inversions has significantly contributed to the understanding of large tsunami sources in the last decade DART signals are simpler to model and contain clear waveform information about the source compared to tide-gauge observations which are complicated by coastal and harbor effects Strategies to increase their use and to overcome the modeling limitations to coarse bathymetry models and high computational cost of high-resolution simulations To address the relative importance of these two tsunami data sets for the specific case of the Maule earthquake, and to analyze the performance of OTA for different causes of misalignment, we perform a resolution test. We attempt to recover a target slip distribution featuring a checkerboard pattern (0 and 10 m slip alternating on groups of 3 × 3 subfaults, Figure 2A) by jointly inverting geodetic and either 1) all DART or 2) all tide-gauge The checkerboard slip model is used to generate synthetic tsunami and geodetic (InSAR land-leveling) signals that we use as “observations” in the inversions Each dataset is corrupted by adding Gaussian random noise with a variance of 10% of the clean data We also shift in time the target synthetic tsunami waveforms by adding a random delay in a range of 0–15 min to mimic the typically observed early arrival of the predicted tsunami signals An additional sensitivity test is performed using an alternative set of tsunami Green’s functions computed with a bathymetric model around the tide-gauges with a lower spatial resolution (2 arc-min) This is tested against a checkerboard target model where the tsunami waveforms at the tide-gauges are produced using a bathymetry with a 0.5 arc-min spatial resolution; in this way we do not add random delay to the tide-gauges because it is assumed to be intrinsic in the change of bathymetry whereas we assume physics-like delays to the DARTs we perform the inversion with and without OTA Target slip model (A); slip models estimated by jointly inverting geodetic and DART data (B) All of the inversions have been performed without using OTA specifically SSIMDART_woOTA = 0.20 These discrepancies are confirmed by comparisons between the synthetic “observed” and predicted data that clearly present a time mismatch between the tsunami waveforms (Figures S4–S6 in Supplementary Material) We also observe that the slip distributions for inversions using only the DARTs or only the tide-gauges are similar to the joint inversion with both data sets This indicates that OTA is equally effective for both DART and tide-gauge data even though the reasons for the time misalignment are different there is no reason to prefer one tsunami data set over another in the inversion in this specific case and for this parameterization uncertainties potentially affecting forward modeling are not fully taken into account by this type of synthetic test since the “observed” and predicted tsunamis are modeled with the same Green’s functions in contrast to an inversion using actual tsunami observations These uncertainties are likely smaller for open-ocean tsunami numerical modeling at DART buoys All of the inversions have been performed using OTA In this test the tsunami Green’s functions for all of the stations (DARTs and tide-gauges) are computed by simulating the wave propagation on a bathymetric grid with 2 arc-min spatial resolution whereas the “observed” tsunami waveforms are computed using a 30 arc-sec bathymetry around the tide-gauges; this is a sensitivity test to check how well the OTA works using Green’s functions recorded at a coarser spatial resolution with respect to the “real observations” Differently from the tests shown in the previous sections here the target tsunami waveforms at the tide-gauges are not corrupted with a random delay because this is implicit in the different bathymetry used with respect to the one adopted for the Green’s functions; on the other hand since the possible delay to the DARTs is not related to the change of bathymetry then we add to these waveforms a “physics-like” delay that increases with the source-station distance It is important to notice how the change of bathymetry in some case affects the waveshape of the tide-gauges but this appears to have a second-order effect on the target slip distribution that is nonetheless well reproduced through the foregoing synthetic resolution test the effectiveness of OTA in estimating the earthquake source when tsunami waveforms are affected by unmodelled time shifts alone we now assess the performance of the method for the 2010 Mw8.8 Maule earthquake We follow the same workflow adopted for the synthetic test Rupture models of the 2010 Maule earthquake Slip models (4 m contour lines in black) are estimated by jointly inverting geodetic and DART data (A) Red star represents the epicenter of the Maule earthquake; orange arrows represent the average slip directions (rake); green line represents the ILOCA track the underlying assumption of that approach was that the tsunami modeling of the tide-gauges signals can be inaccurate due to several factors (e.g. the low-resolution bathymetry model around the instrument) being in principle more simple and accurate FIGURE 5. Rupture model of the 2010 Maule earthquake. Slip model (4 m contour lines in black) estimated by repeating the study of Lorito et al. (2011) and tide-gauge data without OTA but applying ad hoc rigid time shifts to the tide-gauges waveforms (A) Slip models estimated by joint inversion of geodetic and DART data (B) and joint inversion of geodetic and tide-gauge data (C) The inversions in (B) and (C) have been performed using OTA both models are characterized by shallower rupture extent with the model using DARTs having slip that reaches the trench for both the northern and southern patches Finally, when we invert the complete set of data using OTA, the resulting slip distribution (Figure 6; Supplementary Table S2) confirms a bilateral rupture propagation with coseismic slip that extends to the shallow part of the subduction interface near the trench with slip greater than 8 m (maximum slip value ∼14 m); the second patch features a maximum slip of ∼10 m and the average rake angle is ∼113° again consistent with the average relative plate convergence direction Assuming a rigidity μ = 30 GPa the seismic moment is M0 = 1.73 × 1022 Nm (Mw = 8.8) Approximately the same value of moment magnitude Mw is found for all Maule earthquake slip models retrieved in the present study FIGURE 7. Comparison between observed (in black) and predicted (in red) tsunami waveforms for the slip distribution obtained by jointly inverting geodetic and tsunami data using OTA (Figure 6); the time mismatch estimated by the OTA is indicated within brackets FIGURE 8. Comparison between observed, predicted, and percentage residuals of ascending (upper panels) and descending (bottom panels) InSAR data for the slip distribution obtained by jointly inverting geodetic and tsunami data using OTA (Figure 6) FIGURE 9. GPS and land-level data fit for the slip model shown in Figure 6 Comparison between observed (in black) and predicted (A) GPS data (horizontal and vertical in red and blue respectively); (B) observed (black) and predicted (red) land-level changes; error bars for observations are experimental uncertainties whereas for predictions they are calculated adding ±1σ errors FIGURE 10. Time-shift (absolute and percentage) estimated for DART buoys (black dots) and tide-gauges (red dots) using the OTA method in the inversion shown in Figure 6 plotted vs The blue line shows a systematic trend with distance for the DART data featuring a Gaussian shape centered on the average slip value highlighting how the slip is well resolved over the entire fault plane This is true also for the slip distributions obtained from the joint inversion of geodetic and tsunami data without using OTA comparing the marginal distributions of the two slip models (i.e. with and without OTA) we argue that the shallow slip found using OTA is not an artifact (or an outlier) of the inversion; it rather is evident that the average slip values in the northern and larger asperity show systematic behavior moving toward the shallow part of the fault This can be observed from another point of view through the evolution of the models explored by the algorithm during the inversion (see Movies S1 S2 in Supplementary Material) displaying how the inversion converges toward a solution that features shallow slip in the model using OTA and the slip is forced to locate deeper in the other case Using the OTA, we jointly invert the previous data sets supplementing them with the GPS coseismic offsets used by Moreno et al., (2012) and Yue et al., (2014) whose spatial distribution is denser and might help to better constrain the slip distribution FIGURE 12. Comparison between observed (in black) and predicted (in red) tsunami waveforms for the slip distribution obtained by jointly inverting the same GPS data set used from Moreno et al. (2012) and Yue et al. (2014), InSAR, land-leveling, and tsunami data using OTA (Figure 11); the time mismatch estimated by the OTA is indicated within brackets FIGURE 13. Comparison between observed, predicted, and percentage residuals of ascending (upper panels) and descending (bottom panels) InSAR data for the slip distribution shown in Figure 11 FIGURE 14. GPS and land-level data fit for the slip model shown in Figure 11 Thus, we perform a forward prediction of both the vertical and horizontal components of the seafloor deformation associated with all the slip models investigated in the present study, comparing them against the observations (Figure 15). We also compare our results with the models by Tong et al. (2010) [hereinafter TO10], Yue et al. (2014) [YU14], and Yoshimoto et al. (2016) [YO16] Dashed grey vertical line in both the panels indicates the trench location along the ILOCA segment On the other hand for the joint OTA inversion of geodetic and tide-gauge data the comparison with deformation along the ILOCA track becomes satisfactory only along the segment more than ∼20 km from the trench This is an indirect indication (or an a-posteriori verification) that the epistemic uncertainty of the DART data is less than for the tide-gauges This is because the DART data require less-sophisticated (linear) modeling and inherently do not depend as critically on availability of high-resolution bathymetry models This behavior motivates placing higher relative weight on the DART data in the inversion when using both data sets There will always be errors in the model predictions (we cannot reproduce the Earth effects perfectly with any model) OTA will adjust the time misalignments to avoid bias of the solution for the known and unknown limitations of the Green’s functions for the time alignment inadequacies of the Green’s functions for predicting the waveshapes particularly for tide-gauge recordings sensitive to detailed coastal bathymetry Only by improving the bathymetry models can those waveshape predictions be improved the OTA method reduces the predicted arrival time errors for the first cycles of the tide gauge data suppressing first-order bias in the inversions these are commonly second order effects not projecting into the general rupture pattern We reanalyze the 2010 Maule earthquake by jointly inverting geodetic (GPS tide-gauge) data by incorporating the optimal time alignment (OTA) method in the inversion This allows the estimation of the earthquake slip distribution taking into account the time mismatch between observed and predicted tsunami waveforms The Maule earthquake offered an opportunity to benchmark the OTA method The resulting rupture pattern confirms bilateral rupture propagation including a significant amount of slip (∼10 m) near the trench within the northern slip patch as previously indicated by (theoretical phase-corrected) DART data inversions The presence of significant slip in the shallower portion of the subduction interface is supported by a comparison between seafloor deformation predicted for the OTA joint inversion estimated slip distribution and directly observed deformation for a repeated bathymetric survey off the Maule region the inversion results show that DARTs outperform tide-gauges in estimating the slip distribution of a tsunamigenic event giving an objective basis for the relative weights to be assigned in this type of joint inversion using the two data types The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material FR was involved in all of the phases of this study SL and TL contributed to design the Experiment and RT contributed to the tsunami data analysis and to discuss the results This work has been partially funded by EC project ASTARTE - Assessment STrategy and Risk Reduction for Tsunamis in Europe 7th FP (ENV.2013.6.4-3 ENV.2013.6.4-3) and the Italian Flagship Project RITMARE TL’s earthquake research is supported by U.S National Science Foundation grant EAR1802364 We thank three anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2020.585429/full#supplementary-material Numerical tsunami simulation including elastic loading and seawater density stratification CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Quantification of tsunami bathymetry effect on finite Fault Slip inversion CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Land-level changes produced by the Mw 8.8 2010 Chilean earthquake PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Field survey of the 27 February 2010 Chile tsunami CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Slip distribution and seismic moment of 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Accepted: 23 November 2020;Published: 22 December 2020 Copyright © 2020 Romano, Lorito, Lay, Piatanesi, Volpe, Murphy and Tonini. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use *Correspondence: F. Romano, ZmFicml6aW8ucm9tYW5vQGluZ3YuaXQ= Metrics details The MW 8.8 Maule earthquake is the largest well-recorded megathrust earthquake reported in South America It is known to have had very few foreshocks due to its locking degree We analyze seismic activity in the area of the 27 February 2010 MW 8.8 Maule earthquake at different time scales from 2000 to 2019 We differentiate the seismicity located inside the coseismic rupture zone of the main shock from that located in the areas surrounding the rupture zone Using an original spatial and temporal method of seismic comparison we find that after a period of seismic activity the rupture zone at the plate interface experienced a long-term seismic quiescence before the main shock a set of seismic bursts of foreshocks located within the highest coseismic displacement area is observed the seismic rate decelerates during a period of 3 years until reaching its initial interseismic value We conclude that this megathrust earthquake is the consequence of various preparation stages increasing the locking degree at the plate interface and following an irregular pattern of seismic activity at large and short time scales 16 world occurrences since 1900) involve large scale rupture of the interface between two convergent plates but still no observations of these combined seismic rate changes in the short time before a subduction Giant Mega-Earthquake (GME in the following) exist we analyze seismic activity in the area of the 27 February 2010 MW 8.8 Maule GME at different time scales from 2000 to 2019 in order to more precisely characterize the potential changes in the seismic rate preceding this earthquake using equivalent spatial areas and similar time windows of observations Our original combined method of spatial–temporal analysis of the seismicity within and around the coseismic rupture zone allows us to identify potential seismic precursors of the Maule earthquake beginning years before the mainshock as well as a few days before it red patch) are area-equivalent and together contain 95% of the entire recorded seismicity within the region defined in (b) for the considered period (b) Seismic density maps by sets of 3 years segments from 2001 to 2018 All the events of the catalog used are considered FMD variations of the ISC catalogue for the studied areas from 2000 to 2018. Cumulative FMD for the IN-zone dataset (filled blue circles), OUT-zone (filled red squares), and the entire region defined in Fig. 1 (filled black circles) The non-cumulative FMD are represented with the same color-code but with empty symbols (blue circles Vertical dashed lines indicate the highest value of the magnitude of completeness MC computed for each dataset using MAXC and MBS methods (see Methods section) The grey zones represent the magnitude range of the data used in this study (M > 4) which is larger than the local magnitude of completeness of the catalog The b-value is then computed by using the maximum likelihood method parametrized with the estimated MC: In order to obtain a quantitative value reflecting if the seismicity observed within the IN-zone a few days before the 2010 main shock is connected or independent of the following major event we compute a simple statistical test based on the random Poisson distribution we calculate for our dataset the parameter λ of the Poisson distribution for different periods of time before the main event and deduced the probability that the observed seismicity before the main shock occurs then the observed foreshock sequence is not specific to the following main shock as such sequence could frequently and randomly occur then this type of sequence is rare or unique and could be related to the subsequent mainshock The Poisson probability can be written as: Figure 3 shows the results of the Poisson probability P(t), function of the considered periods t, for k = 6 events occurring in Δt = 5 days for both studied regions. These results are discussed in the later part (see results and Fig. 5). Poisson probability based on the frequency of earthquake occurrence. Probability that six earthquakes occurred in a time period of 5 days before the Maule main shock (see Fig. 5a) considering a time distribution of the events following a Poisson’s law (a) Results using the OUT-zone region dataset ranging from 20 to 35% that such a case happen (b) Results using only events distributed within the IN-zone there is only 0.1–0.3% that six earthquakes occur in 5 days within the IN-zone for all the time period tested Seismic rate evolution of the 27F region before and after the main shock Seismic activity recorded before (a) and after (b) the 27F event The color code indicates the seismicity occurring within the coseismic zone (IN-zone blue) and within the previously defined OUT-zone (red) Grey event are located outside both regions and yellow dots correspond to the seismicity with M < 4 Both grey and yellow events are not taken into account for the seismic rate calculations (c–e) Variations as a function of time of the cumulative number of events for both areas (IN-zone blue curves) and the surrounding zone (OUT-zone Only the events with M > 4 are considered Dashed lines correspond to the observed seismic rates (e) Histograms of the seismic density in both IN and OUT zones The marker face colors indicate the time of occurrence of the events in days before the main shock leading to a deficit of lower earthquakes magnitudes General scheme of the seismic processes before the Maule main shock (a) Stage 1 corresponds to the normal seismic rate connected to the continuous slab traction on the locked zone (…–2007) and very few events with M > 5 are observed within the future rupture zone (2007–2010) The locking degree increases at the interface and the stress strongly increases on the main asperities Stage 3 corresponds to the foreshock phase occurring a few days before the main shock This activity occurred close to the areas where the maximum co-seismic slip were observed indicating the maturity of the main asperities to fail soon and Stage 4 images the main shock occurring on 27 February 2010 numerous aftershocks occur during the early relaxation phase within the main shock rupture zone (b) Conceptual scheme of the stress change on the plate interface during the seismic cycle of the MW 8.8 Maule earthquake (c) Conceptual scheme of the seismic rate change has never been documented at the scale of a subduction GME In the case of the MW 8.8 Maule earthquake these first observations of changes in the seismic rate at different time and space scales put in evidence variations in the strain accommodation associated to stress concentrations in locked regions of the plate interface that result in a giant subduction earthquake real time observation of a seismic reactivation in usually quiet zones embedded within a large locked area associated with unusually rapid seismic reactivation could represent a last warning before a larger destructive rupture To monitor a largely locked zone and compare the seismicity of the seismogenic plate interface with the behavior of the surrounding area could therefore be of interest to mitigate seismic risk in the future All the data used in this study come from the seismic catalog made and updated by the International Seismological Center (ISC), and are available at http://www.isc.ac.uk Extended nucleation of the 1999 MW 7.6 Izmit earthquake Potential slab deformation and plunge prior to the Tohoku Iquique and Maule earthquake The 1835 seismic gap in South Central Chile Interseismic strain accumulation measured by GPS in south central Chile seismic gap Maule earthquake slip correlates with pre-seismic locking of Andean subduction zone Seismic-afterslip characterization of the 2010 MW 8.8 Maule earthquake based on moment tensor inversion Aftershock seismicity of the 27 February 2010 MW 8.8 earthquake rupture zone Aftershock seismicity of the 2010 Maule MW = 8.8 earthquake: correlation between co‐seismic slip models and aftershock distribution? Seismotectonic framework of the 2010 February 27 MW 8.8 Maule The Constitución earthquake of 25 March 2012: a large aftershock of the Maule earthquake near the bottom of the seismogenic zone A dislocation model of strain accumulation and release at a subduction zone Nucleation and early seismic propagation of small and large events in a crustal earthquake model Earthquake deformation cycle on the San Andreas fault near Parkfield California Different phases of the earthquake cycle captured by seismicity along the North Anatolian Fault Some characteristics of foreshocks and their possible relationship to earthquake prediction and premonitory slip on faults Seismic evidence for an earthquake nucleation phase Recognizing foreshocks from the 1 April 2014 Chile earthquake Foreshocks (1966–1980) in the San Andreas system California Foreshock occurrence before large earthquakes California foreshock sequences suggest aseismic triggering process The long precursory phase of most large interplate earthquakes Propagation of slow slip leading up to the 2011 MW 9.0 Tohoku-Oki earthquake Intense foreshocks and a slow slip event preceded the 2014 Iquique MW 8.1 earthquake Periodic slow slip triggers megathrust zone earthquakes in northeastern Japan Connecting slow earthquakes to huge earthquakes Episodic tremor and slip on the Cascadia subduction zone: the chatter of silent slip Episodic tremor and slip near the Japan Trench prior to the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake Some features of recent seismic activity in and near Japan (2): activity before and after great earthquakes The nature of seismicity patterns before large earthquakes In Earthquake Prediction: An International Review (eds Seismicity pattern changes prior to large earthquakes: an approach of the RTL algorithm Seismic quiescence preceding the 2016 central Italy earthquakes The surge of great earthquakes from 2004 to 2014 Toward understanding tectonic control on the MW 8.8 2010 Maule Chile Earthquake The 2010 MW 8.8 Maule Mega-Thrust Earthquake of Central Chile Temporal variations of seismic b-values beneath northeastern Japan Island arc Assessing the quality of earthquake catalogues: estimating the magnitude of completeness and its uncertainty Mignan, A., & Woessner, J. Estimating the magnitude of completeness in earthquake catalogs. Community Online Resour. Stat. Seism. Anal. https://doi.org/10.5078/corssa-00180805 (2012) Maximum likelihood estimate of b in the formula log N = a − bM and its condence limits Heterogeneous plate locking in the south-central Chile subduction zone: building up the next great earthquake Locking of the Chile subduction zone controlled by fluid pressure before the 2010 earthquake Deep Earthquakes (Cambridge University Press Anomalously low aftershock productivity of the 2019 MW 8.0 energetic intermediate-depth faulting beneath Peru Fault on-off versus strain rate and earthquakes energy Brittle-ductile transition depth versus convergence rate in shallow crustal thrust faults: considerations on seismogenic volume and impact on seismicity Stress change before and after the 2011 M9 Tohoku-Oki earthquake Afterslip and viscoelastic relaxation model inferred from the large-scale post-seismic deformation following the 2010 MW 8.8 Maule earthquake (Chile) and viscoelastic relaxation: an application of the postseismic straightening method to the Maule 2010 cGPS Seismicity before and after large shallow earthquakes around the Japanese islands Detailed observations of California foreshock sequences: implications for the earthquake initiation process Multiple slow-slip events during foreshock sequence of the 2014 Iquique Evidence for Mogi doughnut behavior in seismicity preceding small earthquakes in southern California Download references We thank the Programa de Riesgo Sísmico (PRS) and FONDECYT project n° 1170218 for funding this study We also thank the engineers and technicians from the Centro Sismológico Nacional de Chile (CSN) who helped to interpret the information provided by the catalog used in this study as well as the International Seismological Centre (ISC) Riquelme for his help interpreting the quality of the catalog and the two anonymous reviewers as well as C Doglioni for their very constructive comments data analysis and interpretation of the data The authors declare no competing interests Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Download citation DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-82152-0 Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: a shareable link is not currently available for this article Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science celebrated the only golden anniversary they really cared about—their golden wedding anniversary—in 1984 There was even a sixtieth diamond anniversary they didn’t miss the 2012 fiftieth anniversary of the company they created Both had a role in the design of the M–9-235 the new 235-horsepower model with a gold stripe that represents the golden anniversary of Maule Air The term “new model” is relative at Maule in Moultrie yet there is a new model number for every tweak An FAA official once dubbed Maule Air the “Potato Head Factory,” since all models are basically the same—but with a new face The $252,900 M–9 comes closest of any to using a different potato It has a long-sought 300-pound increase in gross weight—actually a 280-pound increase if you subtract the wing stiffeners and thicker landing gear that were required for the new weight This five-seat tailwheel aircraft with side-by-side seating has a maximum gross weight of 2,800 pounds the heaviest Maule ever certified on wheels to the Gulf of Mexico paid off—marshlands along the way provided spectacular backdrops (right) The gold stripe on the fuselage and a medalion on the yoke celebrate 50 years of continuous manufacturing (above) hand-stitched leather interior pays homage to B.D who said any customer could have any color he wants so long as it is black,” recalls Brent Maule his grandson and current vice president of sales It is in the black and red company logo as well.” there is little difference between the new Maule and the previous iteration Both have up to five seats and double doors at the cargo area Those cargo doors can be removed before flight causing AOPA photographer Chris Rose to declare the Maule the best photo platform he has ever seen The landing gear is “gun” drilled meaning there is a hole inside both main aluminum-spring gear running from the fuselage to the wheels eliminating the need for an external brake line Maule participated in the design of the M–9 demonstrator flown for this article The aircraft attended its first airshow in 2007 as a “prototype.” Maule officials say there are many fancier options for the panel than are shown in this demonstrator (below right) This first M-9 was started so many years ago that modern avionics were not yet available Except for the 300-pound weight increase and a few sturdier parts in the wing and landing gear the M-9 is not a whole lot different than the M-7 model Yet it has many more differences than most “new” models of the past “We keep on trucking,” says Brent Maule An order this year for 10 aircraft slightly surpasses deliveries for last year although parts sales have sustained the company Many of those parts are headed to South America The Maule has been in continuous production since 1962 Little has changed since the company moved to Moultrie from Napoleon lifted off inside the present-day hangar and flew out the door to show off his aircraft’s short takeoff capability One of those takeoffs had a scary moment when he got too high to get out the door Changes since then include a new paint booth from Italy that addressed complaints about flaking paint and a third hangar that has never trembled from the roar of a Maule at full takeoff power An Irish setter still considers the factory its doghouse Dillon achieved fame by evicting cats from the deteriorating first Maule ever built which resides in a dusty corner of the factory (see “Cat Smackdown,” page 64) The rocking chairs placed strategically around the factory where B.D although his name still appears on the door of his former office narrow lake used by floatplanes and guarded by a swan with anger management problems—and the grass runway next to it—are in daily use The ramp just outside the factory is still used for takeoffs and landings you lead with the rudder and follow with the ailerons I remembered that during our two-hour air-to-air photo flight to St previous models stall gently and predictably There have been improvements over the years Panels are better organized and sport a modern tan or gray color option although the M–9 demonstrator has analog instruments since construction started nine years ago Avionics include a PS Engineering PM 1000 II intercom and a Garmin GNC 250XL radio with a Garmin GTX 327 transponder The hardware-store switches have all but disappeared The M–9 is now the truck of the Maule fleet that—when loaded to maximum gross weight—climbs a little slower than the typical Maule at nearly 800 fpm flies three knots slower at 137 knots true airspeed than the more powerful M–7-260 (260 hp) and requires a few more feet for takeoff (over a 50-foot obstacle) is 280 pounds greater than that of most M–7 models While a less-powerful MX–7-180 (180 horsepower) has a useful load only slightly less than that of the M–9 it lacks the performance afforded by the M–9’s more powerful engine A family of four can take 100 pounds of baggage and still carry 53 gallons of fuel enough to keep the Lycoming IO-540 engine going for nearly three and one-half hours with a 45-minute reserve Son Ray Maule said that while the aircraft has a claimed speed of 137 knots true airspeed he prefers to keep the fuel burn at 12 gallons per hour or less and flight plans for 120 to 125 knots true airspeed Then you can carry the full 85 gallons plus 584 pounds of people or cargo in the cabin The aircraft has two 21-gallon wingtip tanks Fuel is transferred to the main tanks by pilot-controlled pumps Only the main tanks were needed for our photo flight to the Gulf of Mexico led by motorcycle and Maule salesman Richard Lane Sr leaving time during our last morning at the plant to capture takeoffs and landings on video “You put on quite a show,” a worker told Ray Maule watching from the shade outside the hangar door seemed to approve as well and headed inside—ever vigilant for cats that think they are pilots Email [email protected] Takeoff distance over 50-ft obstacle | 791 ft Max demonstrated crosswind component | 12 kt Landing distance over 50-ft obstacle | 900 ft Maule Air, 2099 Georgia Highway 133 South, Moultrie, Georgia 31768; telephone 229/985-2045; www.maulairinc.com; email [email protected] All specifications are based on manufacturer’s calculations All performance figures are based on standard day maximum gross weight conditions unless otherwise noted Maule was known to have lifted off inside the present-day factory flying out the door to show off his aircraft’s short takeoff capability His feat was captured in a limited-edition painting by aviation artist Sam Lyons that hangs on an office wall (above) Only one of the factory’s three hangar-like buildings has never heard the roar of a Maule at takeoff power A new paint booth from Italy that answered complaints about flaking paint has shortened the “runway” length inside one of the two buildings The other is a little cluttered with 10 aircraft under construction Maule always referred to his airplanes as rockets Sam lyons painting courtesy lyonsstudio.com achieved fame by evicting cats from the deteriorating first Maule ever built June Maule had directed that the aircraft not be restored lest something happen to it in flight One day Brent Maule happened to spot cat paw prints in the dust on top of the fuselage and decided to open the door to see if they were inside Just coming up behind him at that time was Dillon Dillon shot inside and served an eviction notice but the cats agreed it was in their best interest to give up squatter’s rights You’ll find a lot of people named Maule in the factory Please review AOPA’s privacy policy to learn more about how your information is used 2022 at her residence surrounded by family A Visitation will be 5:00 – 8:00 P.M with a Celebration of Life Service at 7:00 P.M. A live stream of the service will be posted to the Goslar Funeral Home website with Margaret’s obituary Arrangements are under the direction of Goslar Funeral Home and Monuments Margaret Lucille Maule was born on January 20 the daughter of William and Ada (Graybill) Hathaway She started school at Arcola at the age of four and at age 13 received an honorary certificate for winning the spelling bee at Onawa Public Schools Since there was no local school bus service Margaret attended the last three years of high school at Basin and was the drum majorette for the marching band She graduated from Basin High School in 1940 for five years where they owned a construction company They spent the next several years at Barstow where Robert served as a Marine during the Korean Conflict They returned to the family farm north of Turin when her father retired Margaret was a member of the Turin Methodist-Episcopal church and was active in the women’s groups She served as Worthy Matron of the Onawa Order of the Eastern Star and was a member of the Past Matrons and was known for remembering special days for her family and friends She was a very warm and supportive mom and grandma She looked for the beauty of the sunset almost daily Margaret and Bob loved ballroom dancing and shared this activity with many friends She accompanied Robert as he played organ for residents of 7 regional care centers Will and Ada Hathaway; husband Robert; sister The family wishes to give a warm thanks to her recent special caregivers and companions; Sandy Beachy A special thanks is also due to Burgess Physicians and Home Health Staff/Hospice Staff Condolences may be left online for the family at www.goslarfuneralhome.com Image: djcodrin / FreeDigitalPhotos.net and one of numerous family members who worked at the company aircraft manufacturing factory in Moultrie and “had an aviation career that spanned more than 7 decades He flew more than 30,000 hours in this time and trained countless pilots,” said a message posted on Facebook by Maule Air In this 2012 AOPA Live video Ray and his son Brent Maule shared a bit of Maule Air history as the company celebrated 50 years in continuous production