boarded a plane to live out his dream of competing on season 47 of his favorite show What he didn’t know at the time was that he’d end up becoming a major challenge threat. Or that he’d be the first person to earn individual immunity and make the merge. Or that he’d become the fourth juror of the season Ostwald made his way to the islands of Fiji to compete in the long-running reality competition show and no matter where he ended up one thing rang true: Ostwald was giving it a buck-twenty Season 47 slapped,” Ostwald told the Daily Tribune With Wednesday night watch parties held throughout the county Ostwald said seeing the community's response was amazing “This is when ‘Survivor’ becomes the full circle experience this is when you get to see what happens out of the game,” Ostwald said “And this is the representation of who I was the community that I held and the values that I held personally that I could take that to the islands of Fiji compete with the best of them and come out the other side and see how strongly the support system came back to me Ostwald added that the community’s response to him being on the show was inspirational To be a part of bringing people together and making them proud of where they come from is exactly what he wanted to see happen “Seeing these people and how proud they are of where they come from that's just amazing because that’s exactly what I wanted,” Ostwald said “I wanted these people around here to feel like they mattered I wanted them to understand the amount of strength that they have.”  Ostwald said the feeling of constantly having your back against the wall helped remind him of the things that matter most outside of the game like enjoying casual dinners and being surrounded by the people he cares about but the humbling part of ‘Survivor’ was the best part of the experience,” Ostwald said the adventure itself is once in a lifetime.”  Ostwald played the game with his values forward — often speaking about his love of his family being the driving force behind his efforts on the island Even when he found himself with a full plate of chicken wings as a hidden item he bid on and won during the Survivor Auction Ostwald found himself choosing food and strength over a years-long commitment to a vegan and vegetarian diet “Fiji turned me into a monster,” Ostwald joked While he said that he wouldn’t keep eating meat now that he’s off the island Ostwald wasn’t willing to let a physical breakdown from hunger be the reason he was voted out of the game “There were definitely times where it made me have to go against myself and challenge myself mentally and physically,” he said. “It was all for family. There was nothing that I wouldn’t have done out there to promote myself or my family. Chicken wings, crab — I wasn’t going to eat no worms Ostwald said he found himself walking a line trying to figure out who to trust while knowing that deception was coming from all around him he felt like he grew some really close connections to his teammates it feels like everyone is your closest friend It wasn’t until the season aired that Ostwald was truly able to see what was going on — including conversations trying to get him voted out of the game and third-place winner Sue Smey’s secret red paint idol Ostwald said he grew close with Gabe Ortis a fellow castaway who was also part of his pre-merge Tuku tribe Ostwald said he wanted to see strong players at the end and Ortis is someone he would typically want to keep around he knew Ortis kept a lot from him and had a feeling he wouldn’t take the high risk-high reward chance to the end Ostwald said that meant it was time to take his shot at Ortis before he reciprocated Similarly to how he knew he had to go for Ortis Ostwald said he knew his vote during finale night would single-handedly award a tribe member second place In "Survivor," the jury votes for who of the three finalists they think should win the game He said he knew nearly every single person was going to cast their vote for LaMont Ostwald said he wanted her to win the game but he knew casting a vote for Phalen would be the chance to guarantee he received more money as the second place winner Subscribe: Get unlimited access to our local coverage The first place “Sole Survivor” earns a million-dollar prize. The runner up earns $100,000 and the third place winner earns $85,000, according to Looper “I single-handedly had the ability to create a second-place seat in ‘Survivor’ 47,” Ostwald said “What I did was I allowed for a winner that I truly felt like won the game to win a million dollars and ‘Sole Survivor.’ I allowed a second-place seat to an individual that I honestly (think) outperformed the third-place individual go for Rachel (LaMont) and allow second and third place to be the equivalent number — it didn’t feel right Ostwald was there for the money — he told the Daily Tribune before the season aired that he was fighting for the prize money to provide a life of stability for his family Ostwald said casting his vote for Phalen was easy While the game left Ostwald on the islands of Fiji stressed and hungry he said he wouldn’t need any convincing if he was asked back “If I was invited back to ‘Survivor,’ I would not even pack a bag I would literally be sleeping on the streets until somebody told me I was OK to come in,” Ostwald said “There’s no way that I would turn down that opportunity.”  — Contact reporter Karly Graham at kgraham@petoskeynews.com. Follow her on Twitter at @KarlyGrahamJRN Metrics details This study investigated the impact of water-soluble substances on Ostwald ripening in emulsions stabilized by surfactants with different head groups (Brij S20 and Tween 60) Adding ≥20% (w/w) corn oil to the oil phase effectively inhibited Ostwald ripening of n-decane emulsions due to compositional ripening or glycerol in the aqueous phase of the emulsions decreased the Ostwald ripening rate the impact of propylene glycol depended on emulsifier type accelerating Ostwald ripening in Brij S20-stabilized emulsions but having little effect in Tween 60-stabilized emulsions This effect was mainly attributed to the ability of propylene glycol to alter interfacial characteristics When emulsions were fabricated with a mixture of n-decane and corn oil glucose and maltose were still effective in inhibiting Ostwald ripening These results have important implications for formulating emulsion-based delivery systems with enhanced shelf life These instability mechanisms lead to alterations in the size and location of the oil droplets in the emulsions which can reduce the shelf life of the end product using oils that have an appreciable water solubility it is therefore important to account for Ostwald ripening Ostwald ripening can also accelerate the breakdown of emulsions by increasing the rate of other instability mechanisms such as coalescence and creaming This is because larger oil droplets are typically more susceptible to coalescence and creaming than smaller ones The rate of Ostwald ripening in emulsions containing a pure oil phase can be described by the following equation: D is the diffusion coefficient of the oil molecules through the water phase S is the equilibrium solubility of the oil in the water phase This equation predicts that droplet growth due to Ostwald ripening should increase as the solubility and diffusion of the oil molecules in the water phase increases as well as when the interfacial tension increases emulsifiers may influence Ostwald ripening by altering interfacial tension whereas aqueous phase additives may impact Ostwald ripening by altering the viscosity of the continuous phase thereby altering the diffusion coefficient (which is inversely proportional to the viscosity) we examined the impact of emulsifier type and aqueous phase additives on the resistance of model oil-in-water emulsions to Ostwald ripening water-soluble additives such as sweeteners and stabilizers may be present at relatively high levels in the aqueous phase of concentrated beverage emulsions we examined the impact of these kinds of water-soluble additives on the OR stability of oil-in-water emulsions containing a model oil (n-decane) with an appreciable water-solubility The knowledge gained in this study may help to optimize the formulation of more stable emulsions for application in the food and other industries the impact of the structures of the small molecule surfactants on Ostwald ripening was studied by using Tween 60 and Brij S20 as model surfactants The hydrophobic groups on the two surfactants were similar (C18 alkane chains) but the hydrophilic groups were different Both surfactants have hydrophilic groups consisting of polyoxyethylene chains with the same overall number of monomers But Tween 60 has three shorter polyoxyethylene chains Brij S20 would be expected to form thicker and denser interfacial layers than Tween 60 this difference may have led to differences in the interfacial tension and mass transport processes in the emulsions Since the hydrophobic tails of the two surfactants were similar but their hydrophilic heads were different a Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions stored at pH 3 b Relative Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions stored at pH 3 c Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions stored at pH 7 d Relative Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions stored at pH 7 Values denoted by the different letters indicate the significant differences within emulsions prepared with the same emulsifier (p ≤ 0.05) Asterisk (*) indicates the significant difference between Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabilized emulsions containing the same amount of corn oil (p ≤ 0.05) Values denoted by the different letters indicate the significant differences within the interfacial films prepared with the same emulsifier (p ≤ 0.05) Asterisk (*) indicates the significant difference between n-decane/Brij S20 solution and n-decane/Tween 60 solution when the corn oil content in the oil phase was same (p ≤ 0.05) The magnitude of this effect depends on the concentration difference between the small and large droplets which depends on the initial concentration of the water-soluble and water-insoluble oils inside the droplets a compositional ripening (CR) effect occurs that wants to drive the water-soluble oil from the large droplets to the small droplets to balance their compositions At a sufficiently high ripening inhibitor concentration the CR effect balances the Ostwald ripening effect This finding suggested that 20% corn oil was sufficient to prevent Ostwald ripening in n-decane-in-water emulsions This corresponds to a mole fraction (X2) of (20/872)/(20/872 + 80/143) the experimental value of the amount of corn oil required to completely inhibit Oswald ripening is greater than the predicted value for thermodynamic stability the mean droplet diameter and polydispersity index of the freshly prepared emulsions did not depend strongly on oil phase composition This effect would account for the fact that a similar amount of corn oil was required to retard droplet growth in all the emulsions commercial food and beverage emulsions may contain various kinds of hydrophilic additives in their aqueous phases we investigated the effects of several water-soluble additives on Ostwald ripening of the n-decane oil-in-water emulsions: glucose since many commercial emulsified foods and beverages are acidic (like soft drinks) These experiments were initially conducted in the absence of corn oil to determine if the aqueous phase additives could be used to replace hydrophobic ripening inhibitors a Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions containing glucose b Relative Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions containing glucose c Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions containing maltose d Relative Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions containing maltose e Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions containing glycerol f Relative Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions containing glycerol g Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions containing propylene glycol h Relative Ostwald ripening rates of Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabiilzed emulsions containing propylene glycol Asterisk (*) indicates the significant difference between Brij S20- and Tween 60-stabilized emulsions containing the same amount of water-soluble substance (p ≤ 0.05) a Interfacial tension between n-decane/emulsifier solution containing glucose b Interfacial tension between n-decane/emulsifier solution containing maltose c Interfacial tension between n-decane/emulsifier solution containing glycerol d Interfacial tension between n-decane/emulsifier solution containing propylene glycol Values denoted by the different letters indicate the significant differences within the interfacial films prepared with the same emulsifier (p ≤ 0.05) Asterisk (*) indicates the significant difference between n-decane/Brij S20 solution and n-decane/Tween 60 solution when the content of water-soluble substance in aqueous phase was same (p ≤ 0.05) the critical micelle concentrations of Brij S20 and Tween 60 were 0.046 mM and 0.021 mM the concentration of micelles in the aqueous phase of the Tween 60-stabilized emulsions may be higher than those in the Brij S20-stabilized emulsions the higher OR rate observed in the Brij S20-stabilized emulsions than in the Tween 60-stabilzed ones suggests that the micelle concentration in the aqueous phase was not the major factor influencing Ostwald ripening large oil droplets cream to the top of emulsions due to the difference in density between the oil and water phases the oil droplets are closely packed together which further increases their susceptibility to coalescence if coalescence was prevalent in the emulsions used in this study then the rate of droplet growth would not be correctly predicted by the OR theory This effect would account for the fact that the Brij S20 had a lower interfacial tension than the Tween 60 (which should have been expected to decrease droplet growth through Ostwald ripening) but the rate of droplet growth was actually higher for Brij S20 A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that the interface formed by Brij S20 had less resistance to rupture than the one formed by Tween 60 and so the Brij S20 emulsions were more susceptible to droplet growth through coalescence Some molecules in corn oil have polar hydroxyl groups (including residual free fatty acids which can interact with water slightly stronger than n-decane the presence of corn oil can slightly reduce the interfacial tension the magnitude of this effect was not sufficient to account for the dramatic decrease in droplet growth rate observed as the corn oil concentration inside the droplets was raised leading to the presence of smaller oil droplets droplet growth due to coalescence is reduced the emulsions with the higher interfacial tension do undergo Oswald ripening more rapidly in this case these results indicate that corn oil was an effective ripening inhibitor for the n-decane emulsions and that surfactant type did impact the rate of droplet growth to some extent the pH of the aqueous phase did not strongly impact the droplet growth rate which was mainly attributed to the fact that non-ionic surfactants were used the ability of glycerol to reduce water activity is greater than that of glucose and maltose and the ability of glucose to reduce water activity is almost same to that of maltose It indicated that glycerol could be bound to water molecules more tightly than glucose and maltose and glycerol were dissolved in the water at the same molar concentration the value for the ratio of free water to the total water in glycerol solution should be always lower than those values for glucose and maltose solutions the proportion of water-soluble substance/water attraction in all attractions (water-soluble substance-water and water-water attractions) in glycerol solution could be higher than glucose and maltose solutions it may be disadvantageous for the formation of a cage-like shell around n-decane molecules in glycerol solution compared with glucose and maltose solutions they may have altered the formation of the surfactant micelles in the aqueous phase it is also possible that there were differences in the effects of glucose It therefore appears that the interfacial layers formed by surfactants having a single hydrophilic chain are more susceptible to Ostwald ripening than the ones formed by surfactants having multiple hydrophilic chains it is currently unclear how propylene glycol affects the characteristics of the interfacial layers when the structure of the hydrophilic head groups of surfactants changes significantly In the presence of the ripening inhibitor, increasing the propylene glycol concentration above a critical value (around 15%) led to a significant increase in the OR rate (Fig. 5g, h) although the addition of propylene glycol did not cause a major change in the interfacial tension the OR rate increased with increasing propylene glycol concentration the properties of the interfacial layers may have been synergistically altered by both the presence of the corn oil and the propylene glycol which reduced their resistance to Ostwald ripening This combined effect did not appear to be significantly influenced by the structure of the surfactant used to create the emulsion this experiment showed that water-soluble additives effect the OR rate in oil-in-water emulsions by an amount that depends on their chemical structure and concentration and glycerol addition inhibited the OR rate in the emulsions These effects were mainly attributed to the impact of these water-soluble additives on the interfacial tension and viscosity of the aqueous phase All water-soluble additives caused either a slight decrease in the interfacial tension or had little effect on the interfacial tension This decrease in interfacial tension would be expected to reduce the driving force for Ostwald ripening All additives increased the viscosity of the aqueous phase which should slow the movement of oil molecules between the droplets These two effects would be expected to retard Ostwald ripening in the emulsions which was true for the samples containing glucose and glycerol but not for the ones containing propylene glycol Our results may be important for formulating oil-in-water emulsions or nanoemulsions that are more resistant to Ostwald ripening This knowledge is especially important for systems where relatively polar oils are used Certain kinds of water-soluble additives can increase their stability it is important to select the most appropriate ones Tween® 60 (Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monostearate) Brij® S20 (polyoxyethylene (20) stearyl ether) and sodium azide were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich n-Decane and propylene glycol were purchased from Daejung Chemicals and Metals (Siheung Anhydrous glucose was purchased from Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill Maltose monohydrate was purchased from Duksan General Science (Ansan Corn oil was purchased from a local supermarket an aqueous phase was prepared by solubilizing 0.5% (w/w) Tween 60 or Brij S20 and 0 or maltose in phosphate buffer solution (10 mM pH 7) containing 0.02% (w/w) sodium azide (as a non-food grade antimicrobial agent) Coarse emulsions were then prepared by homogenizing the oil phase (5% w/w) for 2 min at 25 °C using a high-shear blender Fine emulsions were then prepared by passing these coarse emulsions five times through a microfluidizer (MN400BF The pH of the final emulsions was then adjusted to 3 or 7 The emulsions were then stored at 25 °C in the dark and samples were collected periodically for analysis changes in the sizes of the droplets in the emulsions were measured using a laser diffraction particle size analyzer (BT-9300ST; Bettersize Instruments The emulsions were stirred for 2 min and then diluted using 10 mM phosphate buffer solution with the same pH as the emulsion prior to the droplet size measurements to prevent multiple scattering effects continuous stirring was maintained to ensure sample homogeneity The refractive index values of the oil and water phases were fixed at 1.411 and 1.333 The particle size data are reported as the volume-weighted mean diameter \({d}_{43}=\sum {n}_{i}\cdot {d}_{i}^{4}/\sum {n}_{i}\cdot {d}_{i}^{3}\) where \({n}_{i}\) is the number of particles with diameter \({d}_{i}\) The OR rates of the emulsions were calculated using Eq. 2 based on the Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner theory: r0 (μm) represents the radius of the oil droplet in the fresh emulsion while rt (μm) is the radius of the oil droplet in the emulsion after being stored for time (\(t\); days) μm³/day) was determined by performing a linear regression on the plot of (rt3 – r03) against time The relative OR rate was expressed as a percentage of the OR rate of the emulsion containing corn oil (or water-soluble substances) to the OR rate of the emulsion without corn oil (or water-soluble substances) Japan) outfitted with a 50 mL polycarbonate sample cup the viscosity of the aqueous phases was determined The sample cup was filled with 40 mL of the aqueous phase and the temperature was set at 25 °C The driving electric current required to resonate two gold sensor plates at a frequency of 30 Hz was detected by this apparatus in order to determine the viscosity Germany) was used to measure the interfacial tensions between n-decane and emulsifier solutions Oil (n-decane or the mixture of n-decane and corn oil) was placed A quartz cuvette and a pendant drop was made in the oil using a NE45 needle with a 1.8 mm diameter the interfacial tension values were calculated by fitting the profile of the pendant drop to its theoretical shape the values for means and standard deviations were obtained Duncan’s multiple range test was run for mean comparison (p < 0.05) using IBM SPSS statistics version 21.0 (IBM All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files Progress in the application of food-grade emulsions Correlation between interfacial layer properties and physical stability of food emulsions: current trends Application of advanced emulsion technology in the food industry: a review and critical evaluation Ostwald ripening in macro- and nanoemulsions Impact of ripening inhibitors on molecular transport of antimicrobial components from essential oil nanoemulsions Strategies for reducing Ostwald ripening phenomenon in nanoemulsions based on thyme essential oil Spontaneous formation of flavor oil emulsions by using sucrose esters and emulsion stability study Influence of emulsion interfacial membrane characteristics on Ostwald ripening in a model emulsion Ostwald ripening rate of orange oil emulsions: effects of molecular structure of emulsifiers and their oil composition Emulsion-based delivery systems for tributyrin a potential colon cancer preventative agent Optimising the ratio of long- to short-chain triglycerides of the lipid phase to enhance physical stability and bioaccessibility of lycopene-loaded beverage emulsions Nanoemulsions as delivery systems for lipophilic nutraceuticals: strategies for improving their formulation Ostwald ripening theory: applications to fluorocarbon emulsion stability Stabilization of orange oil-in-water emulsions: a new role for ester gum as an Ostwald ripening inhibitor Beverage emulsions: recent developments in formulation Beverage emulsions: key aspects of their formulation and physicochemical stability Effect of ripening inhibitor type on formation and antimicrobial activity of thyme oil nanoemulsion Effects of glycerol and urea on micellization membrane partitioning and solubilization by a non-ionic surfactant Mass transport phenomena in oil-in-water emulsions containing surfactant micelles: solubilization Phase-dependent surfactant transport on the microscale: Interfacial tension and droplet coalescence Effect of surfactant concentration and viscosity of outer phase during the coalescence of a surfactant-laden drop with a surfactant-free drop Prediction of interfacial tension between oil mixture and water Determination and correlation of the water activity of propylene glycol solutions Optimization of cosmetic preservation: water activity reduction The decisive role of free water in determining homogenous ice nucleation behavior of aqueous solutions Solubilization by cosolvents establishing useful constants for the log-linear model Fabrication of vitamin E-enriched nanoemulsions by spontaneous emulsification: Effect of propylene glycol and ethanol on formation Improved oil solubilization in oil/water food grade microemulsions in the presence of polyols and ethanol Phase behavior of microemulsions based on food-grade nonionic surfactants: effect of polyols and short-chain alcohols Propylene glycol and ethoxylated surfactant effects on the phase behavior of water/sucrose stearate/oil system Effect of water-soluble alchols on surfactant aggregation in the C12EO8 system Emulsion sabilization by non-ionic surfactants: the relevance of surfactant cloud point Solubilizing exipients in oral and injectable formulations Download references This study was supported by the Advanced Research Project funded by the SeoulTech (Seoul National University of Science and Technology) (2023-1273) Department of Food Science and Biotechnology Seoul National University of Science and Technology methodology; D.J.M.: writing-review & editing The authors declare no competing interests Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Download citation DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-024-00316-4 Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: a shareable link is not currently available for this article Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science The residential contractor had a heart as big as all outdoors which he poured into everything from camp life to challenges to relationships Kyle became one of the most well-liked people in the game it got to a point where his desire to put his all into everything worked to his detriment He strung together an impressive competitive streak winning the most Immunity Challenges out of anyone in the new era But that unfortunately labeled him as one of the biggest threats in the game And so Kyle's desire to give it "a buck 20" sent him out on Day 20 "What a dick!" [Laughs.] I just gave you the key to the city and you just threw it away for what I think was a poor decision And I think that maybe there was a little bit of regret there and there was maybe some masking that he tried to do.Speaking of regrets talk to me about your relationship with Gabe You seemed to be on opposite sides of Tuku though you also were set up to be his future limo driver and how do you look back on that decision?[To start] We were fixing to head to a Tribal cCuncil after this it was about that point where I was trying to understand when to get Gabe Not that I was trying to really put it in motion but I was trying to throw the bait out there and see who wanted to get them and when Because I knew that if I were to ever swing at Gabe Because I really felt like Gabe is a genuinely awesome person and it was picked up and perceived that way from everybody on the island it was going to be a tough cookie to crumble "I needed to keep my options open." And when I found the opportunity where I could strike Gabe that's when I needed to make the decision on whether or not I wanted to let that actually happen And so the suspense was building up at this point but we had just had a challenge where Gabe beat me in a challenge where I thought I could beat Gabe "Gabe's a physical threat all of a sudden He just beat me in something." And the last time when Gabe beat me and I didn't have that immunity it was a miracle I made it through a Tribal Council So when I finally had the opportunity to swing at Gabe But I was more like a swing vote on it when I was taking this shot and I gave him the benefit of the doubt before everything went down as a brother or you're out." I told him as clear as day Because [he was] somebody I would be willing to go to the end with He was one of the toughest players out there So I'm willing to take it the distance But the shadier he gets–the more active he gets in the game the things that I'm less and less able to pick up on–that becomes threatening to me at this point because now it starts to feel sneaky against me I don't feel that brotherly code anymore you're going home." And to this day any of our interactions [are] very positive If Gabe called me today and he needed something my ass would be on an airplane headed to Gabe now.When it came to that Gabe vote you talked about the difficulty you had in separating your emotions from the game you said that your kryptonite would be not causing people distress Talk to me about your struggle in doing that And would you be able to be more duplicitous if you were given the chance to play again?Oh I think it'd be much easier the next the next time around I would be able to approach it differently I've understood a little bit of of what's happening And when I talk about separating those emotions from the game I'm going to highlight this very well And this is TK's vote very early in the game TK is one of my absolute favorite humans on Earth ever ever ever "What do you think about a TK blindside?" And her reaction was going to let me know where I needed to stand in the tribe She should not have been excited when I brought this up So what I did was I posted a vote with TK against Sue Because I didn't want tk to go home alone Everybody was against him early in the game opened up with–I could tell that he was a little uncomfortable I wasn't about to let him burn like that So I wanted him to feel like there was somebody with him and I was willing to stand there with him on his way out But what that did was it damaged me in the game You can see that with the grudge that was held against me by Sue through the entire game that burnt me I learned that I could not be voting for people and I couldn't be voting in a way that was helping people that were leaving the game That was part of myself in the real world that I needed to put on the back burner I needed to evolve into a better Survivor player and I needed to be able to separate those emotions and those ideas from the actual game to the point where it put me in a better motion forward with the people that I was going to wake up the next day with And then if I do have good relationships with you The fourth jury member also describes the "emotional overload" of being voted out California Dreams was better than Saved by the Bell CHEBOYGAN — Kyle Rhen Ostwald first caught "Survivor Fever" as a fan watching the show Ostwald was on his way to Fiji to compete for the million dollar prize himself 31-year-old Ostwald will be one of 18 contestants participating in Season 47 of "Survivor," a popular reality competition show "You want to see a guy with a fire lit under his a-- put him on 'Survivor' and dangle a million dollars in front of him," Ostwald told the Daily Tribune "You're gonna watch a boy run like you've never seen a boy run before." More: Cheboygan man among 'Survivor' castaways competing in show's Season 47 Ostwald is currently rebuilding the home he grew up in to create a life of stability for his family Ostwald said his upbringing was "a big challenge," with his family facing financial insecurity Ostwald said he'll take any opportunity he can to set his family up for success "You can run around all day long looking at any opportunity under the sun and 1-18 is probably the best odds I'm ever going to find at a million dollars," he said Ostwald said the community was "next to shell shocked" when he announced he'd be joining the cast this year it can feel like it's easy to think you'll be overlooked seeing him compete could give people in the community the confidence to know they can do something as cool as being on "Survivor" themselves In a game that drops you on a remote island to fend for yourself Ostwald said the experience was "miserable The new season of Survivor will air at 8 p.m — Contact reporter Karly Graham at kgraham@petoskeynews.com. Follow her on Twitter at @KarlyGrahamJRN he's one of my favorite actors out there I have a hard time listening to him speak without smiling or preparing for a good laugh And I just think that his personality would be a rip on this show Next, check out our interview with Survivor 47 contestant Gabe Ortis Metrics details To safely and efficiently utilize porous reservoirs for underground hydrogen storage (UHS) it is essential to characterize hydrogen transport properties at multiple scales hydrogen/brine multiphase flow at 50 bar and 25 °C in a 17 cm Berea sandstone rock core was characterized and visualized at the pore and core scales using micro X-ray CT The experiment included a single drainage and imbibition cycle during which relative permeability hysteresis was measured and two no-flow periods to study the redistribution of hydrogen in the pore space during storage periods An end-point relative permeability of 0.043 was found at \(S_w=0.56\) and the residual gas saturation was measured to be 0.32 significant dissolution of hydrogen into brine occurred near the core inlet due to elevated pressures and the corresponding increase in hydrogen solubility many disconnected hydrogen ganglia were observed further down the core which could be explained by the exsolution of the dissolved hydrogen the dissolution of hydrogen led to the formation of preferential flow paths near the inlet and eventually removed most of the trapped hydrogen in the final stage of the experiment The two no-flow periods were characterized by the fragmentation of medium-sized hydrogen ganglia and the growth of a few larger ganglia providing evidence for hydrogen re-connection through the dissolution-driven process of Ostwald ripening These results demonstrate that despite the low solubility of hydrogen in brine hydrogen dissolution can significantly influence the observed multiphase flow and trapping behavior in the reservoir and should be considered in UHS modeling recoverability and purity of the stored hydrogen For these various core- and pore-scale studies the residual gas saturation ranged from 0.07 to 0.41 indicating that a significant amount of stored hydrogen could become unrecoverable This makes it difficult to accurately measure residual gas saturation a common practice in these types of core flood tests is to determine residual gas saturation after injecting 5 pore volumes of 100% brine In this study both pore- and core-scale imaging are combined to obtain a multi-scale characterization of the behavior of the hydrogen/brine/rock system including relative permeability hysteresis used to describe the balance of viscous forces over capillary forces The flow rate is chosen such that the capillary numbers are similar to previous studies Schematic of the 17 cm Berea sample in its carbon core holder The whole core is scanned at low resolution (175 μm) A 1 cm section in the middle of the core is scanned at high resolution (6.5 μm) to study pore-scale behavior The circles represent a raw 2D image at the respective resolution a by-pass loop is used to carefully equilibrate the hydrogen and the brine before the start of the experiment together with the closed-loop system for both fluids minimizes the risk of introducing non-equilibrated brine or hydrogen Two pulse-free high-precision piston pumps are used to inject the equilibrated brine and hydrogen These pumps exhibit an accuracy of 0.1% and are connected to a brine container and a hydrogen cylinder for the initial filling of the pumps A 3 m long PEEK tubing (0.75 mm inner diameter) serves as the conduit connecting the apparatus outside the CT scanner to the inlet pressure transducer (UNIK 5000) A 1.25 m Radel tubing (0.75 mm ID) connects the pressure transducer to the inlet of the core The core is placed vertically inside the CT scanner and the fluids are injected at the top of the core A 0.78 m Radel tubing (0.75 mm ID) is used to connect the outlet at the bottom of the core to the second pressure transducer A 3 m PEEK tubing (0.75 mm ID) connects outlet pressure transducer to an additional Vindum pump positioned outside the CT scanner This supplementary pump plays a crucial role in upholding a consistent back pressure within the system Positioned between the core outlet and the separation vessel it acts as a buffer to reduce pressure fluctuations caused by the pump-filling process The separation vessel has a volume of 150 ml and serves to segregate the brine and hydrogen facilitating the formation of a closed-loop system The system is brought to an operational pressure of 50 bar using a nitrogen cylinder and a back-pressure regulator an effluent bottle connected to the back-pressure regulator collects the brine the effluent bottle is replaced with a tube connection leading to a fume hood for the safe disposal of hydrogen Schematic of the experimental apparatus Notice that the rock sample is placed vertically to prototype the real-field injection scenario from the top of the reservoir The experiment involved a single drainage and imbibition cycle to measure relative permeability hysteresis Two no-flow periods were incorporated into the experiment to characterize the redistribution of hydrogen gas as the result of Ostwald ripening A detailed description of the experimental procedure and analysis is given below At the start of the experiment, background scans are taken at both the micro- and macro-scale (Table 1) The macro-scale images are used to determine porosity and saturation while the micro-scale images are used for the pore-scale image analysis the first step is scanning the dry core (air saturated) at both the micro- and macro-scale air is removed from the system with a vacuum pump after which the core is saturated and pressurized with hydrogen up to 50 bar while scans are taken at both micro- and macro-scale This is followed by gradually reducing the back-pressure to atmospheric while venting hydrogen into the fume hood and saturated with brine while increasing the system pressure to 50 bar before taking scans at both micro- and macro-scale The porosity of the core is obtained from the air-saturated and brine-saturated scans using and are here obtained by averaging the CT values of 27 brine-filled voxels and 27 air-filled voxels in the brine-saturated core and air-saturated core CT values are standardized using dimensionless Hounsfield units [HU] where air and water correspond to -1000 HU and 0 HU to calculate porosity and saturation from the macro-scale background scans all scans were normalized with respect to the equilibrated-brine background scan The next step in the experimental procedure is the absolute permeability measurement for which brine is injected for a range of flow rates (between 0.5 and 2 ml/min) while measuring the pressure drop along the core The absolute permeability can then be determined with the use of Darcy’s law the hydrogen and brine must be pre-equilibrated at the experimental conditions before the start of the multi-phase flow experiment both fluids are pumped through the system while bypassing the core at a rate of 10 ml/min each for 20 min at 50 bar The circulated volume (400 ml) exceeds twice the system volume of 180 ml the hydrogen pump is stopped and the equilibrated brine is recirculated over the core again flowing through the partly hydrogen filled separation vessel to further ensure the equilibration of hydrogen and brine As final step before the multi-phase flow experiment a scan is made of the equilibrated-brine-saturated core at both the micro- and macro-scale \(CT_{exp}\) represents the normalized CT values obtained from the core at a specific step in the experiment \(CT_{H_2}\) and \(CT_{br,eq}\) are the normalized CT values for the hydrogen-saturated core and the equilibrated-brine-saturated core (background scans) The water saturation is obtained with \(S_w = 1- S_{H_2}.\) During drainage the fractional flow of hydrogen (\(f_{H2}\)) is incrementally increased when only hydrogen is injected into the core (\(f_{H2}\) = 1) establishing the irreducible brine saturation (\(S_{wi}\)) This step also initiates the imbibition experiment in which \(f_{H2}\) is incrementally reduced The methodology mirrors that of the drainage experiment and the end-point (\(f_{H2}\) = 0) yields the residual gas saturation \(S_{gr}\) The core average saturations and pressure differentials along the core observed at each steady-state condition are utilized to derive the drainage and imbibition relative permeability curves for brine and hydrogen according to Darcy’s law max }\) are the end-point relative permeability for brine and hydrogen respectively \({S}_{w i}\) is the irreducible brine saturation \({S}_{g r}\) is the residual gas saturation m is the water/brine relative permeability exponent and n is the gas relative permeability exponent where l is the length over which equilibrium is reached [m] \(S_{g r}\) is the residual gas saturation \(\rho _g\) is the density of the gas [\(\hbox {kg/m}^3\)] D is the diffusion coefficient [\(\hbox {m}^2\)/s] \(\sigma\) represents the interfacial tension between the fluids [N/m] and \(m_g\) is the molecular mass of the gas [kg/mol] A 2D representation of the image processing procedure (a) Shows a section of a raw image with hydrogen (dark grey) grains (light grey) and high density minerals (white) (b) Shows a section of a filtered and resampled image (c) Shows a section of a masked and segmented image with hydrogen (red) brine (green) and grains and minerals (blue) (d) Shows the labeled distinct hydrogen ganglia where a difference in color represents non-connected ganglia 3D image showing hydrogen ganglia immediately after pausing the flow during drainage at \(f_{H2}\) = 0.1 A difference in color represents non-connected ganglia Note that the colormap consists of only 8 colors so distant ganglia with the same color often do not represent connected ganglia Steady-state water saturation (S\(_{w}\)) profiles obtained for the different fractional flows of H\(_2\) (\(f_{H2}\)) during the relative permeability experiment for (a) drainage and (b) imbibition. The x-axis limits are set to include only the length of the core, excluding the endcaps. Steady-state 3D saturation maps for each step of the drainage and imbibition relative permeability experiment Note that the core was vertically oriented during the experiment with the inlet at the top The core average saturation at the end of drainage represents the minimum brine saturation in this experiment at \(S_w\) = 0.56 which also corresponds to the initial gas saturation (\(S_{g i}\) = 0.44) It is important to note that this saturation does not represent the actual irreducible brine saturation (\(S_{w i}\)) as flow rates were not adjusted to maximize brine removal from the core The saturation at the end of imbibition (\(S_{g r}\) = 0.32) represents trapped hydrogen It is common practice to measure the residual gas saturation after injecting 5 PV of brine the gas saturation after injecting 3 PV of brine is used as the residual gas saturation Water saturation (S\(_{w}\)) profiles at the start of the no-flow period following the end of the relative permeability experiment (solid line) and after injecting 30PV of brine (dotted line) showing almost complete removal of the residually trapped hydrogen will result in a decrease of around 15% in hydrogen solubility regardless of the pressure and temperature Although different salts exhibit varying salting-out effects the KI brine molality of just 0.18 mol/kg\(_w\) in this experiment is not likely to have a significant impact on the observed dissolution Steady-state drainage and imbibition relative permeability measurements. The modified Brooks-Corey model (Eqs. 6 and 7) is fitted to the drainage measurements using the minimum \(S_w\) as \(S_{wi}\) Note that saturations may change slightly during storage due to influx or outflux of hydrogen from adjacent sections in the core Hydrogen ganglion volume distribution for the first no-flow period: immediately after pausing the flow during drainage at the end of \(f_{H2}\) = 0.1 (light blue) The left plot shows the frequency distribution of ganglia sizes The right plot displays the total volume of the ganglia in each bin relative to the total volume of all hydrogen ganglia Hydrogen ganglion volume distribution during the second no-flow period: immediately after the end of imbibition relative permeability experiment at \(f_{H2}\) = 0 (yellow) after 17 h of storage (light brown) and after 92 h of storage (dark brown) 2D slice and 3D volume of hydrogen ganglia before and after storage for the first no-flow period The 2D images illustrate the rock (grey) with a mid-sized ganglion (yellow) highlighted within the purple circle which transforms into a smaller ganglion (blue) after storage it is evident that the same mid-sized ganglion fragments into multiple smaller ganglia a large ganglion (brown) forms after storage hydrogen-brine multiphase flow was visualized and characterized in a homogeneous vertically oriented Berea sandstone at both the pore- and core-scale A 17 cm long core with a diameter of 10.5 mm was used and the experiments were conducted at 25\(^{\circ }\)C and 50 bar Low-resolution images (175 μm) were taken of the entire core while high-resolution images (6.5 μm) were taken of a 1 cm long section in the middle of the core Steady-state relative permeability hysteresis was measured for a single drainage and imbibition cycle under capillary-dominated conditions Two no-flow periods were incorporated in the experiment to characterize hydrogen redistribution during periods of hydrogen storage Low hydrogen relative permeability was measured with an end-point relative permeability of 0.043 at \(S_w=0.56\) and a residual gas saturation of 0.32 was found These values are consistent with values reported in previous studies and help reduce the considerable uncertainty currently associated with UHS as relative permeability is a crucial input parameter for reservoir simulations Despite extensive pre-equilibration before the start of the experiment significant dissolution of hydrogen in brine occurred during both drainage and imbibition due to elevated pressures and the corresponding increase in hydrogen solubility During drainage many disconnected hydrogen ganglia were observed further down the core which could be explained by exsolution of the dissolved hydrogen dissolution led to the formation of preferential flow paths near the inlet of the core and eventually removed most of the trapped hydrogen in the final stage of the experiment These observations highlight the complex effects of hydrogen dissolution in brine and emphasize the importance of accounting for dissolution when simulating UHS especially in heterogeneous systems where local pressure variations can lead to complex flow and transport behavior next to the direct removal of hydrogen by dissolution an additional 0.14 PV of hydrogen was removed from the core after an extended period of no-flow This could possibly be (partly) attributed to the re-connection of disconnected ganglia by the dissolution-driven process of Ostwald ripening Further evidence for the process of Ostwald ripening is provided by the ganglion volume distributions and 3D pore-scale visualization which showed fragmentation of mid-size hydrogen ganglia and the growth of a few larger ganglia To further improve modeling capabilities for UHS the effect of Ostwald ripening needs to be considered as it can reduce trapped hydrogen saturations and relative permeability hysteresis Future research could compare relative permeability core flooding experiments with and without storage time between drainage and imbibition cycles to experimentally study the effect of Ostwald ripening on relative permeability hysteresis investigating longer storage times with intermediate imaging could provide insights into the progression toward different equilibrium states increasing the resolution of CT images would enable interfacial curvature analysis helping to reveal the correlation between local capillary pressure and Ostwald ripening Since the current experimental apparatus did not allow for high-temperature experiments be conducted under high-temperature conditions to more accurately assess the impact of dissolution-driven processes during UHS The X-ray CT images and experimental pressure data are available to be shared upon request Please contact the corresponding author (maartje.boon@mib.uni-stuttgart.de) Schaber, C., Mazza, P. & Hammerschlag, R. Utility-scale storage of renewable energy. Electr. J. 17, 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2004.05.005 (2004) Tarkowski, R. Underground hydrogen storage: Characteristics and prospects. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 105, 86–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.051 (2019) Heinemann, N. et al. Enabling large-scale hydrogen storage in porous media-the scientific challenges. Energy Environ. Sci. 14, 853–864. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0EE03536J (2021) Hashemi, L., Blunt, M. & Hajibeygi, H. Pore-scale modelling and sensitivity analyses of hydrogen-brine multiphase flow in geological porous media. Sci. Rep. 11, 8348. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87490-7 (2021) Zivar, D., Kumar, S. & Foroozesh, J. Underground hydrogen storage: A comprehensive review. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46, 23436–23462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.08.138 (2021) Hydrogen Underground Storage in Porous Reservoirs (HyUsPRe). https://www.hyuspre.eu (2024) HyChico (UHS Project). https://hychico.com.ar/en/underground-hydrogen-storage-3/ (2024) Underground Sun Storage. https://www.underground-sun-storage.at/en/project/project-description.html (2024) Hassanpouryouzband, A., Joonaki, E., Edlmann, K. & Haszeldine, R. S. Offshore geological storage of hydrogen: Is this our best option to achieve net-zero?. ACS Energy Lett. 6, 2181–2186. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.1c00845 (2021) Boon, M. & Hajibeygi, H. Experimental characterization of H\(_2\)/water multiphase flow in heterogeneous sandstone rock at the core scale relevant for underground hydrogen storage (uhs). Sci. Rep. 12, 14604. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-18759-8 (2022) Dopffel, N., Jansen, S. & Gerritse, J. Microbial side effects of underground hydrogen storage–knowledge gaps, risks and opportunities for successful implementation. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46, 8594–8606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.12.058 (2021) Boon, M. et al. Microbial induced wettability alteration with implications for underground hydrogen storage. Sci. Rep. 14, 8248. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58951-6 (2024) Liu, N., Kovscek, A. R., Fernø, M. A. & Dopffel, N. Pore-scale study of microbial hydrogen consumption and wettability alteration during underground hydrogen storage. Front. Energy Res. 11, 1124621. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2023.1124621 (2023) Thaysen, E. M. et al. Estimating microbial growth and hydrogen consumption in hydrogen storage in porous media. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.[SPACE]https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111481 (2021) Pini, R., Krevor, S. C. M. & Benson, S. M. Capillary pressure and heterogeneity for the CO\(_2\)/water system in sandstone rocks at reservoir conditions. Adv. Water Resour. 38, 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2011.12.007 (2012) Krevor, S. C. M., Pini, R., Zuo, L. & Benson, S. M. Relative permeability and trapping of CO\(_2\) and water in sandstone rocks at reservoir conditions. Water Resour. Res.[SPACE]https://doi.org/10.1029/2011WR010859 (2012) Boon, M. & Benson, S. M. A physics-based model to predict the impact of horizontal lamination on CO\(_2\) plume migration. Adv. Water Resour. 150, 103881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2021.103881 (2021) Hashemi, L., Glerum, W., Farajzadeh, R. & Hajibeygi, H. Contact angle measurement for hydrogen/brine/sandstone system using captive-bubble method relevant for underground hydrogen storage. Adv. Water Resour. 154, 103964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2021.103964 (2021) van Rooijen, W., Hashemi, L., Boon, M., Farajzadeh, R. & Hajibeygi, H. Microfluidics-based analysis of dynamic contact angles relevant for underground hydrogen storage. Adv. Water Resour. 164, 104221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2022.104221 (2022) Iglauer, S., Ali, M. & Keshavarz, A. Hydrogen wettability of sandstone reservoirs: Implications for hydrogen geo-storage. Geophys. Res. Lett. 48, e2020GL090814. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL090814 (2021) Higgs, S. et al. In-situ hydrogen wettability characterisation for underground hydrogen storage. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 47, 13062–13075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.02.022 (2022) Higgs, S. et al. Direct measurement of hydrogen relative permeability hysteresis for underground hydrogen storage. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 50, 524–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.07.270 (2024) Lysyy, M., Føyen, T., Johannesen, E. B., Fernø, M. & Ersland, G. Hydrogen relative permeability hysteresis in underground storage. Geophys. Res. Lett. 49, e2022GL100364. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL100364 (2022) Rezaei, A. et al. Relative permeability of hydrogen and aqueous brines in sandstones and carbonates at reservoir conditions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 49, e2022GL099433. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL099433 (2022) Jangda, Z. et al. Pore-scale visualization of hydrogen storage in a sandstone at subsurface pressure and temperature conditions: Trapping, dissolution and wettability. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 629, 316–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2022.09.082 (2023) Goodarzi, S., Zhang, Y., Foroughi, S., Bijeljic, B. & Blunt, M. J. Trapping, hysteresis and Ostwald ripening in hydrogen storage: A pore-scale imaging study. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 56, 1139–1151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.12.029 (2024) Al-Yaseri, A. et al. Initial and residual trapping of hydrogen and nitrogen in Fontainebleau sandstone using nuclear magnetic resonance core flooding. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy[SPACE]https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.05.059 (2022) Thaysen, E. M. et al. Pore-scale imaging of hydrogen displacement and trapping in porous media. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 48, 3091–3106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.10.153 (2023) Jha, N. K. et al. Pore-scale investigation of hydrogen injection in sandstone via X-ray micro-tomography. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46, 34822–34829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.08.042 (2021) Zhang, Y. et al. Pore-scale observations of hydrogen trapping and migration in porous rock: Demonstrating the effect of Ostwald ripening. Geophys. Rese. Lett. 50, e2022GL102383. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL102383 (2023) Chabab, S. et al. Solubility of H\(_2\) in water and NaCl brine under subsurface storage conditions: Measurements and thermodynamic modeling. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 50, 648–658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.10.290 (2024) Lysyy, M., Ersland, G. & Fernø, M. Pore-scale dynamics for underground porous media hydrogen storage. Adv. Water Resour. 163, 104167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2022.104167 (2022) Gao, Y. et al. Advanced digital-scal measurements of gas trapped in sandstone. Petrophys. SPWLA J. Form. Eval. Reserv. Descr. 64, 368–383. https://doi.org/10.30632/PJV64N3-2023a4 (2023) Blunt, M. J. Ostwald ripening and gravitational equilibrium: Implications for long-term subsurface gas storage. Phys. Rev. E 106, 45103. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.106.045103 (2022) Garing, C., de Chalendar, J. A., Voltolini, M., Ajo-Franklin, J. B. & Benson, S. M. Pore-scale capillary pressure analysis using multi-scale X-ray micromotography. Adv. Water Resour. 104, 223–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2017.04.006 (2017) Adebimpe, A. I., Foroughi, S., Bijeljic, B. & Blunt, M. J. Percolation without trapping: How Ostwald ripening during two-phase displacement in porous media alters capillary pressure and relative permeability. arXiv preprint arXiv:2404.01313 (2024) https://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/ Chow, Y. T. F., Maitland, G. C. & Trusler, J. P. M. Interfacial tensions of (H\(_2\)O + H\(_2\)) and (H\(_2\)O + CO\(_2\) + H\(_2\)) systems at temperatures of (298–448) k and pressures up to 45 mpa. Fluid Phase Equilib. 475, 37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fluid.2018.07.022 (2018) Chakrapani, T. H., Hajibeygi, H., Moultos, O. A. & Vlugt, T. J. H. Mutual diffusivities of mixtures of carbon dioxide and hydrogen and their solubilities in brine: Insight from molecular simulations. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 63, 10456–10481. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.4c01078 (2024) Li, K. & Horne, R. N. Experimental study and fractal analysis of heterogeneity in naturally fractured rocks. Transp. Porous Media 78, 217–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-008-9295-8 (2009) Sander, R. Compilation of henry’s law constants (version 5.0.0) for water as solvent. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 23, 10901–12440. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-10901-2023 (2023) Download references Hadi Hajibeygi was sponsored by the Dutch National Science Foundation (NWO) Talent Programme ViDi Project “ADMIRE” (grant number 17509) Maartje Boon would like to thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG German Research Foundation) for supporting this work by funding under Germany’ss Excellence Strategy-EXC 2075-390740016 Chandra Widyananda Winardhi acknowledges the Ghent University Special Research Fund (BOF-UGent) for the support to UGent Core Facility UGCT (BOF.COR.2022.0009) G065224N and S000619N for their financial support for hardware and software We thank all ADMIRE members and its user committee for allowing us to publish this paper This study was conducted in the Laboratory of Geoscience and Engineering at Delft University of Technology We gratefully thank the technical staff of the Laboratory specially Michiel Slob and Ellen Meijvogel Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (390740016) Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (G065224N) UGent Core Facility UGCT (BOF.COR.2022.0009) Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (17509) Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Download citation DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-81720-4 CHEBOYGAN — The Cheboygan man playing as a contestant in season 47 of "Survivor" has crossed another item off his bucket list: making the merge a 31-year-old born and raised in Cheboygan put him on 'Survivor' and dangle a million dollars in front of him You're gonna watch a boy run like you've never seen a boy run before." Not only did Ostwald make the merge — he was the first to earn his spot in Wednesday's episode after winning the first individual immunity challenge of the season More: Meet Kyle Ostwald, the Cheboygan man debuting this week on 'Survivor' the 18 contestants were split into three different tribes the tribe that lost the challenge faced tribal council where a member of the individual tribe was at risk of being voted out and sent home the three tribes learned that they'd all be joining one another and meeting on the same beach with the winning team earning a meal and a chance to compete for individual immunity Ostwald helped lead the team to victory before also winning the individual immunity challenge Only those who survived the vote at tribal council that night would officially "make the merge." "It feels really good," Ostwald told host Jeff Probst after having the immunity necklace hung around his neck "Anybody that knows me out here understands that I'm here for my family I give it a buck-twenty and I do it for my family." Ostwald told the Daily Tribune in September that he is rebuilding the home he grew up in to create a life of stability for his family He also said his upbringing was "a big challenge," with his family facing financial insecurity The other Michigander competing this season CHEBOYGAN — A familiar face may be hitting the TV screen on Wednesdays at 8 p.m Kyle Rhen Ostwald, a 31-year-old construction worker from Cheboygan, will be a castaway during Season 47 of "Survivor." Ostwald talks about his love for the Cheboygan County Fair's bump-and-run derby and how it's prepared him for his time on the island More: 'Survivor' Season 47 cast: Meet the 18 new castaways hoping to win $1 million in Fiji and the main goal of the game is to cross the finish line If that means putting somebody into the wall along the way — so be it," Ostwald said "It has been preparing me for 'Survivor' because there's a bunch of different strategies that you could take but there's only one of us that are going to cross that line." Ostwald also talks about growing up in a home without electricity and his decision to tear down the home he grew up in to rebuild a new home for his fiancée and their two children "I met my fiancée coming out of high school She really inspired me to want to do more for myself," he said Ostwald spoke about his love for his daughter in the video saying he wants to create a solid foundation for her after he grew up "so rough." "Even more of a reason to bring home that money Ostwald is one of 18 contestants competing in Fiji for the title of Sole Survivor The season will feature two Michiganders on the island with Rachel LaMont from Southfield competing as well — Contact reporter Karly Graham at kgraham@petoskeynews.com. Follow her on Twitter at @KarlyGrahamJRN.  Your Ads Privacy ChoicesIMDb This website is using a security service to protect itself from online attacks The action you just performed triggered the security solution There are several actions that could trigger this block including submitting a certain word or phrase You can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked Please include what you were doing when this page came up and the Cloudflare Ray ID found at the bottom of this page Like many episodes in the new era of "Survivor," Season 47 Episode 10 delivered a fascinating and complicated look into the interpersonal aspects of the game worth $1 million titled "Loyal to the Soil," opened with the fallout that came after Genevieve Mushaluk orchestrated a blindside to vote out Sol Yi in the last episode expressed disbelief and hurt that Mushaluk planned the vote of a fellow original Lavo tribe member Rachel LaMont and Kyle Ostwald discussed backstabbing one of Ostwald's own tribe members before he was able to get to him first who previously felt on the bottom of the group Season 47 of the long-running reality competition show has players stranded on an island and living on meager food as well as competing in challenges and forming alliances to vote out fellow members The last player standing wins the title of "sole survivor," and the $1 million prize that comes with it CMA Awards 2024 winners list: Chris Stapleton wins song of the year Coachella 2025 lineup: Lady Gaga, Green Day, Post Malone will headline During the reward feast at the "Survivor" sanctuary LaMont and Ostwald discussed the possibility of voting out Gabe Ortis although LaMont later expressed that she would prefer to vote for Mushaluk The plan began to come together as Ostwald won his fourth immunity challenge this season To make things more interesting before the challenge host Jeff Probst asked four players to sit out in exchange for a bag of rice at camp The remaining players negotiated with Probst instead all offering their shot in the dark (or a game of chance for immunity) in exchange for the rice planned to secretly vote for Ortis while telling him and close ally Sue Smey to vote for Mushaluk The plan to vote out Ortis came through and he received a majority of the votes making him the third player to join the jury who will eventually select the season's winner players split off into teams of two and competed in the three-stage immunity challenge which ended in an outlast-style balancing act on two very small footholds aboveground And as the first four players out of the challenge Andy Rueda and Sam Phalen lost their vote and had to compete to win it back in a special "journey." Gabe Ortis won the challenge and individual immunity Rueda and Phalen built a house of cards and the first player to topple the deck would lose their vote which was an unfortunate turn of events for the players back at camp counting on her to execute a blindside Mushaluk took an opportunity to rally remaining players to orchestrate a blindside against Solomon "Sol" Yi and after some initial panic and doubt both at camp and during tribal council the 43-year-old medical device salesman from Norwalk You can watch new episodes of "Survivor" Season 47 live on CBS and Paramount+ and subsequent episodes run for 90 minutes Episodes are available to stream on Paramount+ live and on demand for Paramount+ with Showtime subscribers or on demand for Paramount+ Essential subscribers the day after the episode airs Instead of a three-hour finale episode, the Season 47 finale will air in two, two-hour episodes over two weeks As with other seasons in the new era of "Survivor," an aftershow hosted by Jeff Probst will be filmed with the winner other finalists and jury directly after the winning player is crowned in Fiji While "Survivor" previously took contestants to remote locations around the world from the Pearl Islands to the Philippines and Guatemala the show has been filmed in the Mamanuca Islands in Fiji for the past 15 seasons Jeff Probst has hosted all 47 seasons of the show and Genevieve answer our burning questions in exclusive pre-finale interview 18 kicked off season 47 of the hit reality competition show “Survivor,” which pits 18 complete strangers against each other in a quest to earn the $1 million prize while being stranded on a remote tropical island But season 47 will be a special one for us here in Northern Michigan will begin his mission to bring the million back home But with all competitors doing their best to outwit Tune in at 8 p.m. Wednesdays to CBS for season 47 of “Survivor,” or you can stream it on Paramount Plus. For more information on the other competitors visit the Survivor website "I haven't harmed anything with a heartbeat in a long time." By John Powell – GlobalTV.com It has been over a month since Rome Cooney made his accusations against fellow player: Kyle Ostwald. In our interview with him we asked Rome if it was a big mistake to target Kyle It wasn’t shown but Kyle had mentioned something on the beach that I was not a fan of and that was the reason why I targeted him otherwise I would have worked with him…Kyle said something about Sue and Caroline that I was not a fan of It didn’t make the edit so I’m not going to talk about it but that that made me want to go for Kyle instead I don’t even want you to last another day on this on this island People know because I obviously relayed what he said to Sue and Caroline so the people on the island know what he said but I’m just not going to be the one to repeat it right now.” Since that time fans have wondered what Rome meant Was it the totally innocuous “Tweedledum and Tweedledee” comment or was it something far much more that didn’t make it to air Having seen how the construction worker was portrayed on the show many didn’t believe Kyle would ever stoop so low wasn’t the game he was playing and not the human being he is Kyle cleared that controversy up and more in his chat with us John Powell: Thanks for taking the time to talk to us today You’ve been able to sit back and watch your exit Kyle Ostwald: I’m feeling good about it Obviously I’ve picked myself apart and I’ve tried to take myself back to the moments of my demise and I’m like: Man I think that’s pretty typical thing for most people to do but I’ve basically come down to the point where it’s like: Kyle if you’re not uprooted from your community it’s not fair of you to pick yourself apart when those things were being applied to your personal position in life I came into this game knowing that I was going to put my foot on the gas and I wasn’t picking my foot up off the floor until I’d seen God or a checkered flag You can see it time and time in Survivor history but there’s only going to be one sole Survivor in the end Just knowing that I had so much community and family and people behind me I couldn’t find it in myself to roll over at any point So anything that you’ve seen me doing I gave it every ounce that I had every single step of the way John Powell: Whether it’s life or Survivor we can look back at ourselves over and over again and pick apart ourselves but that’s our wishes and dreams You have to look at yourself and what you accomplished how your attitude and mindset was going into the game Was there any thought of all to throwing a challenge to take the heat off yourself Kyle Ostwald: In your mind you kind of feel that way I’ve watched many of Survivor seasons and I see the way physical players stand out…That’s where I come back to the there’s only going to be one winner The odds of you winning at the start are one in 18 but when you’re on the island it’s like one in 30 million You start to realize that there’s more than one goal that comes to light it’s a sense of pride for your family the integrity within you and show your family where they come from so they can be proud of themselves into the future was going to be my ultimate take home if I could not take home the million dollars as well I could not let off the gas and still achieve both things comfortably within myself John Powell: You’re very open about your background there’s the alcoholism and drugs that were part of your family life I’m glad that you brought that in the public forum and talked about it because it takes away a little bit of the stigma There’s a stigma that if  you grow up in that environment you are THIS or THAT kind of person When you were on the island and people were talking about perhaps their everyday complaints did that weigh on you at all someone who has dealt with so much in your life I tried to look at it like this: I was thinking about this during pregame Everybody has their own lives and they’ve experienced the ups and downs If a down in my life is seemingly a mile down There’s no reason that when I look at your life and your down only seemed a half mile there’s no reason that could not have felt like a full mile to you If you’re complaining because your cat passed away and I’m complaining because my family passed away it’s not fair of me to say that’s just your cat So my problems were never more than anybody else’s problems I can’t hardly afford the insurance on my truck I came out of foster care and I was left down and out of family things when I should have been included more times than not It got to a point where I had to find a sense of self pride or I would have to roll over in life and I can’t do it I couldn’t find myself to do it in life I couldn’t find myself to do it in the game some something in me that came to life that said: You just got to be resilient that the Devil himself is just so sick of picking on you because he just can’t knock you down it’s like my grandfather always said: It is not your successes in life that you learn from it’s your failures and when you’re down That’s when you really learn about yourself and your true character and what you believe in speaking of some of your relationships on the show You must have been surprised to see how much she was going in hard on you Kyle Ostwald: Which is another sensitive topic and I’m going to be very careful of how I speak because I don’t want to step on anybody’s toes or feel like I’m disrespecting anybody We’ve had nothing but positive things to say to one another outside of the show What was off putting to me was things like I was being “male dominant” when I was giving very genuine hugs and gentle touches Then you have people like Gabe beaten on his chest I’m like: I’m the dominant one I voted against her in the TK (Terran “TK” Foster) moment and I tried to explain to her I didn’t want TK to go out feeling like everybody was against him that I wanted him to go out feeling like there was somebody there still with him but that was damaging to my game John Powell: I was going to ask you about the Rome thing Now I’m hoping it’s not the Tweedledum and Tweedledee thing do you have any do you have any insight into this at all Kyle Ostwald: It couldn’t be more pathetic than just that That lets you know that you’re still my bestie My choice of language can be off putting to many people though there is a lot of gentle and kindness behind it It was a very good move on Rome’s end I’m not going to highlight it because he had his opportunity and he missed it but it was a mad lib Terran “TK” Foster and Caroline Vidmar What he did was he took somebody that was genuine somebody that was very honest and made these accusations It was after in the interviews when Rome was asked: Why didn’t you work with Kyle He brought it to light after he was out of the game What he did was he watched me through the game up until the point where he’s voted out He has interviews that come about after he’s already watched the show he’s using the character he’s observed from TV to fill in the blanks and let your imagination do the damage because he knows whatever he has to say is not going to be as damaging as what your own mind can fill that blank in with I seen what he’s trying to get out of it John Powell: Did it trouble you that he mentioned that Kyle Ostwald: What kicks me up about it more than anything is the fact that Rome and I had a decent relationship He likes to talk more than me and he let me know: Let’s keep good with this and let each other know what happened so at the next challenge we’re going to let each other know Rome is fighting and arguing with Sol to be the very first person in line Rome and I need to get to the mat at the same time so that way we can exchange information before anybody else gets there We get to the mat and I look at Rome and he looks at me…He just exchanged information with me and it was very positive…I spilled out everything some alarming things that I’ve heard from these people When I was using the Tweedledum and Tweedledee thing by definition I’m going to say is two people the acting Sue and Caroline didn’t show much difference from one another They were the same in this game as far as I was concerned He just runs around telling everybody and I’m like: What I’m feeling like I’m at the bottom of my rope You were one of my lifelines and you just burnt me obviously we only get a very small look into your entire journey when it comes to the edit Is there anything that you wish fans would have been able to see whether it was a strategic moment or a bond Is there anything you wish to what they would have included in your journey on the show Kyle Ostwald: There was a moment there where I went against Gabe in a challenge We were partners and in the end of the challenge we end up having to face one another (and he wins immunity) I’m very happy for him but what he just did was disrupted my immunity streak and left me vulnerable Now I know he could do that into the future I’m going to like Genevieve: You’ve been painted as a target All we hear though is Kyle and the physical threat issues you guys are good and keep me in your strong alliance’ Let’s get this to the finals and brawl like a bunch of mad people at the end Let’s get the deserving people there and just hammer on one another What Genevieve ends up doing is coming to me with Gabe and they use a fear tactic against me I’ve never seen somebody cut through the s–t as quick as Saul and he’s so personable So if you’re Sol and you’re coming after me I need you gone because I’m threatened to buy you right now John Powell: As a member of a jury you have a very big responsibility in picking the winner you can’t say who you chose in the end but when you were thinking about who deserves to win what were some of the things that you were weighing on your mind What were some of the things that you were thinking about Kyle Ostwald: I was using personal experiences I was looking at the way this would benefit someone and their life Not just financially but them and their lives In that ripple effect the money can be burnt out quick You can burn through a million dollars fast in life I want the winner of this game to have integrity a little bit of whatever they get what is going to happen to their life when they get back home because ultimately this is a journey of a lifetime…It’s going a ripple effect into our communities you were a breath of fresh air this season You’re very inspirational in many ways Kyle Ostwald: If I got the phone call I wouldn’t even stop to pack a bag Survivor 47 Fantasy Tribe * Available content may vary through participating service providers Trump’s second term is a wake-up call: Canada can no longer afford to assume U.S Strengthening Indo-Pacific ties is critical Canada risks remaining an afterthought in the region anticipated a transactional and volatile ‘Trump 2.0’ administration the ‘shock and awe’ nature of his first month back as U.S president has been staggeringly disruptive Trump has sown chaos and pushed past institutional constraints he has taken significant steps towards upending the political and economic global order that has defined the last seven decades.  To great dismay, Canada — long the U.S.’s closest friend and ally — was among Trump’s first targets. After a brief reprieve, Trump followed through on a campaign promise to impose 25 per cent tariffs on most Canadian goods, a move Trudeau argued was intended to trigger “a total collapse of the Canadian economy” that makes it easier for the U.S “to annex Canada.” Though some of the tariffs have again been “paused” and others scaled back their imposition and lingering threat have shattered confidence in the long-term viability of a deeply integrated cross-border economy Even before Trump 2.0, the importance of diversification was clear. Canada’s 2022 Indo-Pacific Strategy (IPS) was intended to facilitate that end by strengthening ties to a region that is home to two-thirds of the world’s population and drives much of its economic growth Despite ongoing tensions with China and India Canada has made tangible progress since the strategy’s launch Trump’s America adds urgency to accelerating that progress but its disruptions to global relationships and institutions also create new complications for Canada Canada faces a moment of reckoning with shifting global realities Several key dynamics warrant closer attention.  The bandwidth challenge is well-known but remains critical Canada is not a large country by population Its modestly sized foreign service is already stretched thin and its private sector remains deeply intertwined with the U.S. The existential threat posed by Trump’s America naturally consumes the bulk of Canada’s attention further constraining its ability to cultivate emerging partnerships in Asia.  The practical implications of the bandwidth challenge cannot be overstated Southeast Asia’s 11 countries are highly diverse requiring nuanced understandings of their distinct opportunities and challenges if Canada is to fully realize their potential as strategic and economic partners Success in the region also depends on sustained personal ties which demand a consistent Canadian presence following through is harder: Canada simply lacks the capacity to be meaningfully present everywhere The inevitable conclusion is that if Canada’s Indo-Pacific ambitions are to succeed the region must be treated as a genuine priority.  Beyond attention, Canada’s resources also face mounting pressures. Most notably, the potential retreat of the U.S. security umbrella creates an urgent need for greater defence investment. The push to accelerate NATO’s two per cent defence spending target only adds to this strain funding will almost certainly be diverted from other areas — including diplomatic outreach efforts — to meet these demands A significant economic downturn would further compound this challenge.  Canada’s positioning in Asia presents a related and equally complex challenge Trump demands loyalty not only to himself but to his worldview and priorities This is not entirely new: parts of the IPS already reflect strong U.S But as Trump reshapes America’s global role the costs and consequences of real or perceived alignment with the U.S has not always been inherently liked in Asia so much as it has been respected and welcomed for the critical role it has played in supporting development and providing security assurances there is a real possibility that it will systematically retreat from those roles as the Trump administration continues to project disdain for all things foreign parts of Asia will likely respond with growing hesitation — if not outright animosity — toward the U.S.  remains too big to ignore and too important to seamlessly replace through alternative partnerships That leaves Canada with little choice but to maintain a constructive relationship with its southern neighbour the cost of being seen as an aide-de-camp to the U.S has never been higher and will only rise if an unrestrained Trump grows more disruptive Even fairly neutral terms associated with U.S power — “like-minded,” for example — will provoke skepticism among some transpacific partners Trump’s transactional and extortionist approach to foreign policy diminishes the substantive alignment between U.S Canada will need to navigate this difficult squeeze strengthening an autonomous identity and formulating distinct priorities while also avoiding steps that deteriorate its relationship with the U.S global uncertainty has generated immense interest in Canada Part of this stems from the hope that Canada’s ‘front-line’ perspective can help others make sense of U.S proximity does little to transform chaos into clarity but even if Canada cannot serve as the world’s U.S its views and experiences make it an invaluable discussion partner as countries in Asia seek to understand global change and recalibrate their strategic directions That likely means being offered a seat at the table more regularly which Canada should take up whenever feasible.  This moment of transition raises important practical considerations Brand Canada is generally well-regarded in Asia: it carries relatively little of the baggage associated with other Western countries and there is ample collective memory of Canada’s past contributions particularly in development and conflict mediation in Southeast Asia Canada has also gained an unfortunate reputation as a fair-weather friend prone to retreat when its domestic political winds shift accessing opportunities across the Indo-Pacific requires staying the course through this period of transition at home and abroad But Canada must also re-examine its existing efforts I was struck by how many Filipinos recognized Telus — a significant employer in Manila — yet assumed it was an American company (Tel-US).  The anecdote highlights a key issue: much of Canada’s engagement in the Indo-Pacific is not easily recognized as Canadian a challenge compounded by its historic preference for working through multilateral platforms and global institutions As the image of Team North America deteriorates the time is ripe to more deliberately foreground Team Canada While the private sector operates independently it can still be encouraged to engage in some basic ‘national service’ — co-ordinated by the business councils and chambers of commerce — by more visibly flying the flag.  The second issue concerns how Canada presents its brand security assurances have allowed Canada to sometimes act more like an NGO than a traditional state in its foreign engagements Canada is known for its values-driven approach to foreign policy but has also contributed to Canada’s reputation for being sometimes ‘difficult’ and disconnected from local realities Canada should not abandon its values in its pursuit of stronger partnerships especially as many countries slide toward a race to the bottom security guarantees and market access it once took for granted Canada faces a new reality that calls for a pragmatic recalibration of how it balances values and strategic needs.  We are in a transitional moment that upends many long-held assumptions underlying Canada’s foreign policy it is important to foreground a core fact articulated in the IPS: the Indo-Pacific is “rapidly becoming the global centre of economic dynamism and strategic challenge.” As a Pacific nation Canada is well-positioned to play a greater role in this shift and momentum is already building to make that happen.  transitional moments demand more than just doing things differently If Asia is to be a meaningful part of Canada’s diversification and global engagement Canada must craft a refreshed narrative — one that is more than just a collection of new initiatives It needs a coherent story that clearly defines who Canada is and what its core interests across the Indo-Pacific mean in practical terms A paradigmatic shift of this kind is daunting But few things can focus the mind and transform perspectives like a crisis.  Kai Ostwald is the HSBC Chair and Director of the Institute of Asian Research at the University of British Columbia jointly appointed in UBC’s School of Public Policy & Global Affairs and the Department of Political Science His work focuses broadly on politics and development in Southeast Asia as well as the Canada – Southeast Asia relationship Kai has also been involved in policy and development work for a range of organizations including the World Bank and the International Development Research Centre He holds additional research appointments at ISEAS in Singapore and the Penang Institute in Malaysia and serves on the executive council of the Southeast Asia Research Group (SEAREG) You are using an outdated browser. Please upgrade your browser to improve your experience and security It has pleased no less than surprised me that of the many studies whereby I have sought to extend the field of general chemistry the highest scientific distinction that there is today has been awarded for those on catalysis The award has pleased me because in my innermost being I used to consider this part of my work the one in which the personal quality of my method of work is most definitely shown up and which I therefore have more at heart than all the others The award surprises me because it was not until a very much later period that I expected for this work the recognition on which I dared to place my hopes It gives me a very high opinion of the unerring instinct with which the authorities of the Nobel Foundation perform their fine no less than difficult and responsible task that their judgement coincides with the one that I myself after most earnest self-examination must take; and since I cannot expect anyone to have a more thorough knowledge of my work than I myself this proves that those authorities have acquired such a sure grasp of their function that in the future the whole of international science can look forward to their decisions with confidence There is no need for me to point out that these comments do not refer to the choice of my person but only to the choice of the work after the decision as to person The first issue is not for me to judge; all that remains for me here is to accept the accomplished fact with all the profound heart-felt gratitude which such recognition on the part of the most competent body notably that of one’s own colleagues Amongst the many happy moments of what has been a life filled with a profusion of gratifying occasions I am aware of only one which I can compare with the present occasion and that is the first scientific recognition ever which I received publicly at the very outset of my career Together with the recognition conferred on me today it forms the two high-lights of these experiences since even for the future I can expect nothing greater It is not quite a year ago that I wrote in a different context: “I myself have no cause for complaint whatsoever about lack of recognition of the scientific work which I have been so happy to perform in the field of general chemistry; yet the purely intellectual achievement of conceiving catalytic phenomena as accelerations of possible processes which are in progress whereby the whole vast field of catalysis was first opened to exact study lay at the time so far outside general scientific thought that where the broader masses of scientists are concerned it is today still at the incubation stage notwithstanding the passing of some twenty years I presume that subsequently this advance will become so naturally part and parcel of the overall context of scientific thought that the gap will cease to be apparent at all and I shall be deprived of that measure of personal glory to which I am justly entitled by virtue of this advance in theory Yet this will not upset me any further since in the meantime I have come to regard such matters as object studies in the reactions of the collective psyche” That I have fortunately been proved wrong in that prediction demonstrates how far I underestimated that as science progressively developed and as its nature and attributes became more and more familiar mankind’s appreciation and acceptance of scientific progress has steadily accelerated Whereas in former centuries it was a commonplace for a scientist not to be understood until long after his death in our day this time-lag has almost entirely disappeared no less so than most of the active opposition formerly placed in the way of free research by powers which feared that their rule would be threatened by the growth of Science obliged to endeavour to ensure that their theories did not contradict those of the Church the Church is at pains to prove that its teachings are compatible with those of Science the Church acknowledges Science as the higher authority And this education was not successful until the vast experimental significance of this concept had been demonstrated in specific experimental studies Of course there were even greater difficulties fifty years previously when Berzelius made similar scientific advances in chemistry. We may refer to this great scientist as the good spirit of this building.1 Here he spent the largest and most important part of his busy life while for the second time (his predecessor being Linné) he established the scientific hegemony of his country in Europe From here he sent into the world those annual reports dealing with his science in which as an honest appraiser he put every item discovered by the research of his day into its proper perspective and thus for the first time brought out its value and significance It was here through purely intellectual effort that he achieved incomparably more for his Science than he was able to achieve with all his pains in his simultaneous capacity as a tireless experimenter it would have been difficult for him to have achieved this degree of esteem and influence of his judgement had he not beforehand in practically all sectors of his science first examined the nature of things in person and if in his hands the simplest tools had not through proper and varied use become ever-flowing springs of fresh knowledge The profusion of his experimental discoveries the meaning of which was as understandable to his contemporaries as their number was baffling led to his being acknowledged the unchallenged master of chemistry and to his even greater gift of formulating concepts being first conceded when his electrochemical theory of chemical compounds was considered completely vanquished by the unitary theory of the biased organic chemists were the concepts of positive and negative elements which he had formulated an unchallenged factor in the writings of those selfsame triumphing opponents The reason was the simple fact that those concepts summed up a truth the force of which asserted itself even when time had eroded away the ephemeral element And these very same new concepts which had become decisive for the triumphing theories were formulated by the thinker whose theories his short-sighted opponents thought they had everywhere disposed of and vanquished we have above all else to honour a master in the art of formulating chemical concepts and it is no wonder that he has a decisive bearing on the concept formulation with which we are concerned today For a deeper insight into this task of penetrating into scientific conceptions a task which is still far too little known and to which far too little attention is still paid we shall first consider a case where something concrete was obtained at the very outset In the first quarter of the nineteenth century the experimental proof for the interdependence of the composition and properties of chemical compounds resulted in the theory that they are mutually related so that like composition governs like properties The well-known fact that the form of a specific substance and hence its properties can alter without a change in composition was disposed of by the formal view that a physical As though that disposed of the actually existing difference in properties for the same composition these differences are governed by variations in temperature and pressure and (with certain limitations) it is true to say that under given external conditions the properties of a substance of given composition are invariably the same substances were quickly discovered one after another which had quite dissimilar properties while analysis showed them to be identical in chemical composition Wöhler’s in many ways successful studies of cyanic acid gave the same analysis results for this compound as Liebig had found in his analysis of fulminic acid (which at the time made him a world-famous chemist at the age of barely twenty) The two young scientists had failed to notice it but it struck Berzelius when in his conscientious and concise manner he abstracted the two papers for his annual report There is no need for me to go into the familiar story of how isomerism was discovered; I should like to single out just one point When the common fact became apparent that like composition can be accompanied by substantially dissimilar chemical properties Berzelius acquired the equipment to investigate experimentally such a case as thoroughly as he could In an admirable study of racemic acid and its salts he then established these facts with the maximum precision and raised the concept of isomerism to the status of a fully authenticated scientific concept notwithstanding the enormous advance of our knowledge about this very subject it has not materially altered but only been expanded in the original sense Even the then still completely hypothetical view that the differences in properties came about because “the atoms were assembled in different ways” has remained absolutely intact and the differences of opinion subsequently concerned only how the various “assemblies” are to be envisaged and represented Whereas here we have a concept which has persisted in essentially unchanged form right up to the present and which appears destined for a very long life yet on its original basis The explanation lies in the fact that the sum total of the knowledge in the field discussed above is still today at the same period of its development because no new fundamental ideas have sprung up despite vast development in breadth a decisive change has set in meanwhile whereby the problem itself has acquired a new basis This has meant that all the peculiarities belonging to that earlier epoch have simultaneously had to be laid aside and thus in the light of the new science the concept has acquired an essentially different emphasis Yet it should be pointed out at once that Berzelius revealed his genius by actually formulating his concept almost as purely and as perfectly as possible under the particular conditions Important fundamental laws governing the genesis of any science are involved here and hence a few words about these general phenomena will not be out of place epistemological importance to have a more precise knowledge of these phenomena but also of very great practical importance because it substantially facilitates estimating the particular state of any science hence the inevitable discussions can be settled and shortened and progress to some extent made independent of chance We know from biology that new forms of organisms simulate their primitive form as closely as possible at first even though obliged to exist under changed internal and external conditions Hence they invariably take with them into their new mode of life a certain number of forms and characteristics which are superfluous It is contrary to the nature of organic evolution for such “rudimentary” organs or characteristics to be shed at once On the contrary they have to be carried for quite a long time and are only discarded after long and difficult evolution The cause of this obviously inefficient state of affairs lies in a general characteristic which may be termed the law of biological inertia and which is a determining factor in the chronological events associated with biological phenomena in the same way as the mechanical law of inertia determines dynamic phenomena In the final analysis the law of biological inertia is based on the common attribute of living creatures the sweeping importance of which was first recognized by Ewald Hering and which has been termed memory in the widest sense the law is based on the fact that living creatures (as distinct from inorganic structures) experience or perform a process more easily the more frequently they have been subjected to it After each such process the organism is in a certain sense altered whereas the inorganic structure is normally reversible once the former conditions have been restored it reverts exactly to its earlier state the same characteristic also occurs with all special activities of the organisms we meet them again in the new concepts in science which are invariably so formulated as to simulate as closely as possible the existing concepts and therefore from the time of their formation and the ideas then prevailing they absorb a greater or lesser number of “rudimentary” elements which it is the difficult and laborious task of subsequent research to eliminate For the furtherance of science it is therefore extremely important to recognize the rudimentary elements of an existing concept which are destined to disappear Normally they are the ones which appear particularly appropriate to the thinking of the era since the ephemeral and hypothetical aspects come closer to this as a rule than the fundamentally general aspect which invariably necessitates a much more penetrating process of abstraction Referring now to the formulation of the catalysis concept it must first of all be pointed out that in the days before Berzelius no one at all had ever conceived and felt that the individual phenomena which we have since learnt to regard as special cases of a general event were related On the contrary they were put down as isolated facts which although their existence had to be acknowledged since they had been ascertained by reliable observers for the time being could only be taken note of and nothing further A remarkable thing here is that certain of these phenomena the formation of dextrin and sugar from starch by boiling with acids (the acid not changing permanently) had been known ever since the close of the eighteenth century and developed into large-scale industries it being quite typical of technology not to wait at all until Science has tidied up a thing theoretically before applying it it is usually ample for a start if the actual process mechanism is known in sufficient detail to enable the process to be conducted as desired and Both conditions applied to the action of acids on starch Berzelius was induced to group this phenomenon together with a number of other phenomena under a single concept as a result of a work performed by his pupil who had studied in detail the transformation (also known technically) of alcohol into ether under the action of 50% sulphuric acid and had equally found that no consumption of the sulphuric acid occurs during the process the reaction ceases after a time but that is due only to secondary reactions (oxidation of the alcohol by the sulphuric acid) which play no direct part in the formation of ether The processes grouped together by Berzelius were: the transformation of starch into dextrin and sugar by acids (Kirchhoff 1811); the same transformation by malt extract (Kirchhoff 1814); the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and gaseous oxygen in the presence of platinum 1818); the action of finely divided platinum on inflammable gas mixtures (Davy 1823); the formation of ether by the action of sulphuric acid (Mitscherlich The factor which Berzelius regarded as being common to all these processes was that the substances which interact to form the product (or else which decompose into their cleavage products) do not do so on their own or spontaneously but only after the addition of a certain substance which is not itself consumed Mitscherlich had termed the process which he studied a chemical action by contact; Berzelius introduced the name catalysis instead with the active but unconsumed substance being termed the catalytic substance or catalyst and the cause underlying the phenomena catalytic force Berzelius insisted categorically that it had not been his intention with this terminology to give an explanation of the group of phenomena On the contrary he defined: The catalytic force actually appears to consist in the ability of substances to arouse the affinities dormant at this temperature by their mere presence and not by their affinity and so as a result in a compound substance the elements become arranged in another way such that a greater electrochemical neutralization is brought about which has been described elsewhere and hence need not be repeated Berzelius expressly drew attention to there being no assumptions underlying this definition which is restricted merely to specifying the facts and deliberately and expressly avoids attempting to account for them In reply to Liebig’s hypothesis that a decomposing substance could induce the decomposition of other substances in contact with it and after he had shown the examples cited by Liebig to be invalid he continues: “We thus obtain a fictitious explanation by which we believe to have understood that which we cannot yet understand and whereby the attention is diverted away from the matter to be explained which then remains all the longer unelucidated I should like to repeat once again what I have stated so often before prematurely enunciated explanations invariably lead astray and that the only method to obtain positive knowledge is to leave the incomprehensible unexplained until sooner or later the explanation emerges of its own accord from facts which are so plain that divided opinions about them can scarcely arise Not to believe that there is more to be seen than can clearly and plainly be appreciated and to regard the rest as material for further investigation is a scientific principle which should not be violated but it is one which precisely those persons who are gifted with a lively mind and a fertile imagination find most difficult to follow” The last phrase refers to Liebig whose other views were opposed more and more by Berzelius at the same period although with less justification than in the present case owing to the acceptance of Liebig’s clear but not rational views catalysis reached a stage of almost complete stagnation Knowledge of the experimental state of affairs where catalytic processes are concerned was increased only in occasional isolated instances where the facts were too obvious to be overlooked and no further progress was made in understanding them on the decomposition of amygdalin into oil of bitter almonds and sugar by an apparently protein-like substance occurring in almonds which they termed emulsin established a typical case of a very extensive series of catalytic phenomena Payen and Persoz had found that the transformation of starch into dextrin and sugar by malt discovered by Kirchhoff was attributable to the action of a special substance which can be extracted from germinated barley by water and purified by repeated precipitation with ethyl alcohol; they had also found that the activity is eliminated by heating to 100°C Yet the multiple technical applications to which this discovery immediately gave rise had occupied their attention to such an extent that they did not arrive to study the general aspect of the phenomenon in more detail This was taken in hand in the study by Liebig and Wöhler which Berzelius in his annual report referred to as the most important of the year and in which the recognized the analogy of the reported processes with the general catalytic processes which Liebig at any rate was not inclined to admit Liebig secured general acceptance of his theory of molecular collisions or vibrations two circumstances being instrumental in bringing about this acceptance in contrast to the dwindling reputation of the old master Berzelius there was the growing reputation acquired at the time by Liebig as a result of his fundamental studies in organic chemistry the time was not yet ripe for a rational concept of catalytic phenomena because the concept of the rate of chemical reaction was not yet available By far the most frequently performed chemical processes in those days were those between salts and as is well-known they proceed at such a fast rate that even today the time required has defied measurement The few slow-rate processes were consequently not regarded as really typical (since require time) but rather as inconvenient anomalies which impeded the instantaneous formation of the desired substances without perceptible cause Accordingly we find that the oldest scientific examination of a catalytic process – the admirable study by Clément and Désormes in 1806 of the formation of sulphuric acid under the action of the oxides of nitrogen which Berzelius overlooked – accounts only uncertainly for the promotion of sulphurous acid oxidation by stating that the oxygen would be supplied to the oxidizable substance by the oxides of nitrogen in a more convenient or suitable form The development of a rational view of the nature of catalysis was thus absolutely dependent on the creation of the concept of the rate of chemical reaction The concept was formulated (after an inadequate attempt by Berthollet) by the German amateur scientist Wilhelmy and by a remarkable chance (or is it the intrinsic logic of historical evolution?) the first paper to submit a proper concept of the rate of chemical reaction also constitutes the first quantitative study of a process proceeding under catalytic action The reaction in question was the inversion of cane sugar The name originates from a prior study by Biot and Persoz who used the polarimeter designed by the former and established that the solution of cane sugar which rotates the polarization plane of light to the right rotates it to the left on the addition of a dilute acid It was found chemically that cane sugar absorbs the elements of water and changes into a mixture of two different sugars one being weakly dextrorotatory and the other strongly laevorotatory hence the resultant is a rotation to the left At the same time these workers observed that the process is not completed instantaneously but requires a period of time varying with the nature and concentration of the added acid as well as with the temperature; Biot who was more readily inclined than all the chemists of his day (Wilhelmy too was a physicist) to regard the observed phenomenon as a systematic transient process also pointed out the importance of a more thorough investigation of these phenomena only Wilhelmy was sufficiently interested to undertake not only the necessary experiments but in particular also the fundamental task of formulating concepts The ratio of the amount of substance (cane sugar in this case) converted in a given time to the time required for the process he conceived and defined as a new concept recognizing its appropriate mathematical definition at once to be the differential quotient of the amount of substance with respect to time Since this parameter should be the same in any portion of a reacting solution independent of the absolute amount of substance the amount of substance must be related to a unit in other words it can most easily be conceived as a concentration Wilhelmy then demonstrated that on the simplest assumption that the amount of sugar (in the sense just defined) converted under the given conditions in each clement of time is proportional to the amount remaining unchanged there is a large measure of agreement between the observed changes in rotation and those calculated on the basis of this assumption and thus he discovered the general law for the time dependence of the (simplest) chemical processes It has subsequently proved to be the fundamental law of chemical kinetics The influence of the acid proved to be (approximately) proportional to its concentration besides being dependent on its chemical nature one of catalytic effect; yet in his paper Wilhelmy did not use or mention that concept at all but left the chemical aspect of the matter unsaid we recognize that simultaneously with the typical case of a chemical reaction a typical case of catalytic effect had been studied which constitutes a limiting case with pure water the inversion of cane sugar scarcely proceeds and subsequently it required very thorough difficult studies before this effect and its order of magnitude were established Initially Wilhelmy’s paper had no repercussions whatsoever in Science On the one hand there was an increasing number of cases of catalytic actions which with a greater or lesser degree of accuracy chemists were familiar with; on the other hand there was a growing knowledge of slow-rate chemical processes and the laws governing them Whereas in studies spanning practically the whole of his life discovered the most variegated and surprising cases of catalysis and notified them to his reluctantly listening colleagues (who in those days had devoted all their energies to the problems of producing and classifying organic compounds) expressly pointing out the inability of contemporary science to comprehend them he still held that those processes are initiated solely by the catalysts He was totally lacking the idea of the chemical rate and therefore the concept of chemical acceleration as well hence his contribution to the knowledge of catalysis was restricted to collating a profusion of material highly interesting owing to its unexpectedness from which the concept of chemical rate and the laws of chemical kinetics were developed even in more complex cases were of catalytic nature without particular attention being paid to that fact The conditions were hence such that sooner or later both lines of research had necessarily to combine and it was my personal good fortune that I was able to apply the finishing touch Initially I had merely been endeavouring to find a quantitative measure for the concept of chemical affinity a concept every bit as important as it was imprecise in those days and following (unwittingly at the time) a train of ideas enunciated by Cato Guldberg I had envisaged both static or equilibrium methods as well as dynamic methods for this purpose based on the measurement of rates of reaction From the literature of organic chemistry of which I had to keep track in the exercise of my teaching duties I remembered several cases in which for preparative purposes esters had been broken down into acid and alcohol by the action of strong acids hydrochloric or sulphuric acid in concentrated form To be able to use aqueous solutions I resorted to those esters which are quite readily soluble in water and I can still recall the joyous excitement with which for the first time I followed the rapid rise in the acid titre in an aqueous solution of common acetic ester to which hydrochloric acid had been added Methyl acetate proved even more suitable owing to its greater solubility and faster reaction rate and so one of my first studies in chemical dynamics the catalytic saponification of this particular ester under the action of various acids This is not the place to describe the development of the affinity problem especially the measurement of the “strength” of acids which were then the actual object of my studies It need only be mentioned that the sought-for relation between the static and dynamic methods proved real and the “strength” was acknowledged to be a common property of the particular acids independent of the nature of the special reaction Soon afterwards I studied the inversion of sugar in the light of these considerations and immediately found that this classical reaction was determined quantitatively by the same property of the acids as was of course to be expected from the previous results there could be no question of that because the study was conducted in 1887 immediately before the free-ion theory had been created and announced to the world I was compelled to the view that the nature of catalysis is not be sought in the inducement of a reaction but in its acceleration and the relevant publication of 1888 contains explicitly the corresponding mathematical arguments which were perhaps already implicitly embodied in the 1883 paper on methyl acetate Everywhere the traditional chemical theories were being remoulded in accordance with the new concepts and new ideas and concepts had become such a commonplace for me and my few colleagues that little trouble was taken to single out each detail appropriately It was not until somewhat later when I personally turned to energetics and thus freed myself from hypothetical ideas from which no direct experimentally verifiable conclusions can be derived that I also felt the need to put an end to the stagnation in which the study of catalytic phenomena had ended up as a result of such ideas I recalled the naive drawings which a prominent worker at that time had published in order to “visualize” the catalytic effect of pounded glass on the combination of the constituents of detonating gas with moderate heating; the drawings showed how the sharp edges of the glass splinters cut the gas molecules into atoms which were then able to combine freely And there was more of that sort of thing such as the late Lémery with his spikes and hooks on the atoms I therefore took the opportunity offered to me by many reports to combat those injurious hypotheses and draw attention to the incomparably greater effectiveness of the simple definition of catalysis based on measurable facts which states that catalysis is a chemical acceleration brought about by the presence of substances which do not appear in the reaction product a deanship programme and a widely read paper which I gave in 1901 at the Hamburg Natural Scientists’ Convention completed this side of the task Its necessity emerged quite clearly at that meeting for in the chemical literature of those days it is not uncommon to encounter the comment “that the name catalysis is not an explanation of these processes” and that comment was to be taken as a reason for rejecting the concept in question As though Berzelius had not already pointed out how a premature and overhasty attempt at elucidation without proper experimental evidence must have a damaging effect on how the issue develops ; as though the half-century that had elapsed in the meantime had not afforded continuous proof of the absolute correctness of Berzelius’ warning by its barrenness in this sector with its later glut of fruits It is appropriate here to examine in terms of catalysis the relation of Berzelius’ definition as given above to that found here The outcome of this examination can be predicted right away: Berzelius had in fact done practically everything possible in keeping with the viewpoints of his age to characterize the essential nature of these processes Since he had no concept for the difference between slow-rate and fast-rate chemical processes he denoted states with the intrinsic capacity (the necessary excess of free energy) to change into other states by the symbolic term “dormant affinities” By stating that a re-arrangement takes place in the sense of a greater electrochemical neutralization he points out that a state of higher equilibrium or lower free energy is attained the process cannot occur in conflict with the second law of thermodynamics (a not infrequent implicit assumption of the contemporary critics of that concept) Only the statement that the catalysts acted by their mere presence and not by their affinity can be criticized In contrast none of the profounder theories of catalysis allowing for causal circumstances some of which have recently been advanced and others revived has prospered better than Clement and Désormes’ theory of intermediate reactions This is based precisely on the participation of the catalyst in the reactions actually occurring although the partial reactions contain the catalyst as a major chemical component of the process I have already stressed that there is no decisive reason to assume that all catalyses can be attributed to such intermediate reactions; yet it must be conceded that no other equally effective principle has hitherto been found in the theory of catalysis it may be stated that Berzelius’ definition had almost attained the acme of perfection possible in his day but the most important concept for a successful mastery in theoretical terms of the overall phenomenon was still lacking Liebig’s much less perfect but explicit definition (although giving rise to a false opinion) had provisionally been victorious when a scientific treatment of catalysis was still impracticable the advantages of Berzelius’ definition could not be shown to full effect and it was only after the necessary conditions had been created that the methodical tact of the great Swedish scientist became brilliantly apparent I need waste no words in stating that individual scientists who were apparently of the opinion that all that is required to become a historian of chemistry is an acquaintance with old chemical books and texts refused to recognize in the remoulded concept of catalysis a repetition of Berzelius’ or Liebig’s definition The distinction between the old and the new formulations consisting in the incorporation of the concept of the rate of chemical reactions is so great that it immediately asserted itself in the objective development of catalysis Although neither Berzelius’ good definition nor Liebig’s bad definition promoted in any way the development of this scientifically interesting and technically highly important field the new definition had that effect at once this effect was felt in the rather restricted sphere within which the new concept had arisen For me personally the advent of this field of study came after I had completed extremely urgent tidying-up and construction work which had been necessitated by the introduction of the above-mentioned new fundamental ideas into general chemistry at a period of my life when after ten years’ assiduous and unstinting work at these tasks I was experiencing profound exhaustion for the first time Lothar Meyer had urgently warned against overworking since he himself had experienced its malicious consequences (Not withstanding every sympathy of his fine pleasing nature with the sudden development of the scientific field to which he had devoted his main life’s work he could not suppress a certain uneasy feeling that the direction of this development was totally outside the path which he had regarded as the most promising and therefore the most likely.) At the time I answered him with the rashness and enthusiasm of youth that it was more important to center universal interest on the whole matter as quickly as possible than to keep a single individual in a fit state for later work by sparing one’s person For even if I were worn out after a few years fresh workers would have taken over from me in the meantime that the loss of my personal contribution would be replaced many times over more valuable because of their greater energy would be lacking because they would not have been attracted to the new field by a burning interest of the day I have to confess that at the time the actual significance of such exhaustion brought about by keenly assiduous work was not very clear to me so that I made that self-sacrifice with a certain amount of awareness yet without precise foreknowledge of its consequences I believe that even had I been better aware of the future in store for me I would not have acted very differently since the logic of the consideration just mentioned is clearly not affected At all events Lothar Meyer’s warning went unheeded and the consequences which he had predicted came about a few years later The worst manifestations of exhaustion were successfully cured by a long period of rest but it was immediately apparent to me that I had lost once and for all my former capacity for carrying out experimental work until physically tired It thus came about that although towards the end of the 1890’s my colleagues and pupils had begun on a wide scale to investigate catalytic phenomena I myself was almost unable to take an active personal part in the experimental work involved for reasons which I shall not disclose here I had to renounce altogether my university professorship In the interim the suggestions which I had made before then bore rich fruit and of my former colleagues I would single out G successful contribution to the new field gave closer attention to the problem of catalysis one of the organism’s main agencies for an enormous variety of purposes and again the kinetic definition proved superior to all other attempted generalizations some of which were more figurative than objective The point of these considerations is that in fact the situations to which reference has been made were conducive to a favourable evolution of science It would be idle to speculate how they might have been otherwise; in contrast it is important that we have been able to convince ourselves that the present state is healthy and requires no special intervention or guidance whatsoever The only debatable point might be whether the speed of the evolution is fully consistent with the importance of the subject; for all that we know from catalysis how easily the intervention of a specific catalyst in the form or else of a young research worker gifted with unusual creative powers I felt obliged to describe its antecedents and to say a further few words about my personal circumstances The unusual distinction to which I am indebted for the opportunity to speak here has also generated a certain degree of objective interest in the conditions which nurtured the studies considered worthy of such a distinction and in the consequences ensuing for the workers themselves When I consider the flourishing state of the field in question I can find no justification for the regrets or reproaches which from time to time have been addressed to me for abandoning this work Only yesterday in Kocher’s report on his fundamental studies of the functions of the thyroid gland and its accessory organs we heard an account of the effect of the secretions from this “chemical apparatus” on man which are an excellent example of how catalysts function in the organism The old contrasts of the classical “temperaments” reducible to the contrast between the slow and the quick appear in this connection to be a result of the quantitative proportion of two opposing catalysts Since the proof for the importance of the new field is forthcoming in so unsought-for and at the same time in so fundamental a manner there cannot be any shadow of doubt about the flourishing future of such concepts Turning to the personal side I should like to comment as follows The most general and positive result of the study of the brain in recent decennia has been the doctrine of the localization of the separate functions It might well be argued that this proof was really superfluous for it conflicts with the first principles of logic to assume the existence of a multiplicity of intellectual functions without attributing to them correspondingly distinct multiplicity in their organ the experimental proof is so much more convincing than such a general consideration that great weight attaches to it in any case Furthermore it proves the individual relation whereas the general consideration has to stop short at the details In the light of this theory we now understand how certain parts of the brain are so worn out by excessive strain that subsequently they only function much less perfectly than before The individual organs follow the same pattern as the whole organism maximum activity and then of aging decline In specific circumstances the period of aging decline can set in earlier in a particular organ than in the organism as a whole which I have repeatedly stressed in the past that this selfsame extremely heavy strain imposed by research most readily produces this type of partial invalid and in respect of certain functions which I could once perform perfectly It is not without painful emotions that I make such an avowal although these emotions are much less painful if the realisation is one’s own than if conveyed by another person And there is a comforting side to this acknowledgement namely that although individual fields have been exhausted other fields have been left untouched to a proportionately greater extent precisely on account of the one-sidedness of the former activity which caused the damage when such a contingency arises the afflicted person has to look for activities which he would earlier have liked to pursue but could not owing to the inexorable demands of the day and it is highly probable that he will find fields in which he will be able to perform work which not only occupies his time and affords him a need-felt satisfaction but possibly is of almost equal value to his achievements in what is now an exhausted specialist field The part to which I am referring concerns the general issue of the types of scientific discoveries that are actually known and possible The general assumption of coherence of the world which as we know forms the basis of all science Whether that coherence obtains universally is a question that need not be answered here since only those parts where the coherence has actually been found become part of Science and thus the most general problem of Science can be expressed as the general function equation Increasing specialization of the general equation yields the types of scientific discoveries being sought We know to start with that in theory at least each object is related to every other but that the limited acuity of our sensory perceptions (even of such that are sharpened by instruments) the practical proof of existing relations is rather narrowly restricted It thus follows that whereas in principle the above equation should relate to the whole Universe; for Science the general equation breaks down into a large number of partial equations each applicable only to a finite number of objects a,b,c… It might be mentioned in passing that there is no need at all for these objects to be of the more specific character of magnitudes; it is sufficient for them to be objects which is to become familiar with the objects a,b,c… that are interrelated studying the plants of a particular area establishes such a relation This problem fills the deficit in the class of descriptive sciences in the stricter sense Each group so related gives an appropriate concept symbols or attributes of which are none other than the objects a,b,c… there is also the complementary task of proving that the function F is closed in other words that no objects other than a,b,c and d are contained in the relation concerned These relations are especially important in that they define the natural invariants the objects which remain within the scope of the term in all circumstances The chief such case is that of energy where it has been acknowledged that the sum total of this magnitude cannot be modified by any process whatsoever are not simple but themselves contain many symbols (that is to say that they are compound or complex concepts) further investigation can be made into special relations between these attributes of the concepts The chief case arises where the objects are measurable in that a number can be assigned to them which establishes their value quite definite relations to objects of the same kind in each definite case of the function F(a definite values belong to its terms and to determine this quantitative relation is the corresponding scientific task An example is the gas equation pv – RT = 0 which defines the behaviour of an ideal gas as a function of the various pressures The problem of determining such a relation is generally solved by selecting two of the parameters which are variable and varying them while maintaining all others constant in pairs until sufficient single equations have been obtained to formulate the overall equation The number of single equations necessary is invariably less than that of the possible binary combinations After the necessary number of single equations has been found it is therefore always possible to form further pairs of relations (and ternary and higher if the number of independent variables is greater) the form and content of which is also defined by the single equations that have been established without the need for special experimental study of them Plainly it is not consistent with the traditional definition of deduction but is in fact the only process known to science to derive unknown from known relations Faced with this general consideration it will immediately be realized on inquiry into the particular position occupied within this general scheme by the scientific field of catalysis that it is in the first stages of its development At present the main task is still essentially to discover and scientifically to establish the various cases of catalysis For the moment it is still scarcely possible to summarize these cases systematically or decide which types of reaction are catalysed and the relation between the chemical nature of the catalyst and that of the reagents For catalysis based on intermediate reactions it is possible to state that the substances must be related in a way favourable to the occurrence of such possible intermediate reactions which proceed collectively at a much faster rate than the immediate or main reaction It will hence be abundantly clear again that a special problem of chemical kinetics is involved in the special case of these catalyses and that until a way has been found whereby a rate of chemical reaction can generally be calculated in advance as a function of the chemical nature of the reagents and perhaps of the special form of the reaction equation the catalysis problem cannot satisfactorily be answered the great unity of all science stands out decisively as a general regulative principle * The lecture was extemporized from brief notes and was afterwards reconstituted from the notes so that the reasoning – Translated from Annalen der Naturphilosophie 1 The lecture was delivered in the Grand Hall of the Swedish Academy of Sciences adorned with a bust of the great scientist 2 For brevity’s sake I have left aside the complication that for its part 3 Six prizes were awarded for achievements that have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind The 12 laureates' work and discoveries range from proteins' structures and machine learning to fighting for a world free of nuclear weapons Tasked with a mission to manage Alfred Nobel's fortune and has ultimate responsibility for fulfilling the intentions of Nobel's will these academic institutions have worked independently to select Nobel Prize laureates Several outreach organisations and activities have been developed to inspire generations and disseminate knowledge about the Nobel Prize Metrics details There is significant interest in establishing a capability for tailored synthesis of next-generation carbon-based nanomaterials due to their broad range of applications and high degree of tunability shockwave-driven) synthesis holds promise as an effective discovery method but experimental challenges preclude elucidating the processes governing nanocarbon production from carbon-rich precursors that could otherwise guide efforts through the prohibitively expansive design space Here we report findings from large scale atomistically-resolved simulations of carbon condensation from C/O mixtures subjected to extreme pressures and temperatures made possible by machine-learned reactive interatomic potentials We find that liquid nanocarbon formation follows classical growth kinetics driven by Ostwald ripening (i.e. growth of large clusters at the expense of shrinking small ones) and obeys dynamical scaling in a process mediated by carbon chemistry in the surrounding reactive fluid The results provide direct insight into carbon condensation in a representative system and pave the way for its exploration in higher complexity organic materials They also suggest that simulations using machine-learned interatomic potentials could eventually be employed as in-silico design tools for new nanomaterials but the landscape of systems and conditions under which intense compression could yield interesting nanomaterials is too vast to be explored using experiments alone which is capable of retaining “quantum accuracy” while maintaining the computational efficiency of a molecular mechanics approach Atomistic modeling could help elucidate such problems but the research remains in its infancy with applications to carbon precipitation nearly nonexistent Herein we employ the machine-learned ChIMES reactive interatomic potential framework to simulate carbon-rich C/O mixtures and address open questions surrounding formation of nanocarbon from highly compressed organic materials What is the role of chemistry during carbon condensation How does overall system composition influence carbon cluster formation Our results provide an atomistically-resolved view of carbon clustering in a condensed phase reactive system and make possible for the first time a comprehensive analysis of this process thereby opening new investigative avenues that could lead to in silico design of next-generation nanomaterials are capable of yielding quantum accurate predictions for structure provide several-orders-of-magnitude increases in efficiency over first-principles methods and exhibit computational efficiency that scales linearly with system size We note that additional simulation details are provided in the “Methods” section carbon condensates are defined as any set of carbon atoms containing at least 10 members instantaneously separated by no more than rCC = 1.9 Å from their nearest neighbor within a candidate cluster (with rCC corresponding to the location of the first minimum of the C–C radial pair distribution function oxygen atoms within rCO = 1.8 Å of a cluster carbon were also counted with rCO taken as the location of the first minimum of the corresponding RDF While the choice of clustering criteria may have some effect on predictions we note that our overall analysis and conclusions remain unchanged The light gray isosurface around each cluster is given to provide a sense of shape A partial cross-section is provided for cluster v at time t ≈ 500 ps red beads are oxygen atoms and black beads are carbon atoms; fog is used to convey depth we find that for condensate-producing compositions increased oxygen concentration has the primary effect of slowing cluster formation kinetics and qualitative growth kinetics are not significantly modified we focus here on the 100% CO and 80/20% CO/CO2 systems which we henceforth distinguish by their respective C:O ratios and formation kinetics for the 5:6 C:O system were largely unaffected by system size simulation results for the 1:1 system will correspond to a single 500 ps simulation of 1.25 × 106 atoms whereas results for the 5:6 system are an average over 4 independent 250 ps simulations of 1.25 × 105 atoms; when results are being compared between the 1:1 and 5:6 cases data for both concentrations correspond to the latter simulation protocol We note that 5:6 C:O simulations were run at 6500 K and 2.46 g/cm3 yielding the same initial pressure as the 1:1 C:O simulation at 6500 K and 2.5 g/cm3 suggest that smaller clusters are morphologically distinct from their larger counterparts and increasing system size leads to a broader cluster size distribution a Reduced radial density profiles ρ(r/Rg) and time-resolved average radius of gyration (inset) and density profiles correspond to hyperbolic tangent fits to each histogrammed ρ(r/Rg) The black dashed curve gives the profile at 500 ps and the shaded region in the 〈Rg〉 inset figure gives the maximum and minimum observed Rg at each time block while the orange line gives the average value solid lines) and oxygen enrichment (ϵO = fO/fC dashed lines) emanating from cluster centroids The color bars provide the corresponding time range for each line we find that cluster structural evolution is mostly uncoupled from system composition which determine the persistence of an initial metastable Time (t) resolved natural log of the average number of clusters \({{{{{{{\rm{\ln }}}}}}}}\left(\langle {n}_{{{{{{{{\rm{clu}}}}}}}}}\rangle \right)\) (solid lines) and average overall cluster-volume fraction 〈fv,clu〉 (dashed lines) in the 1:1 and 5:6 CO systems The dashed line provides a linear fit to t = 5 to 500 ps and is only intended to serve as a guide to the eye in terms of reduced cluster radii of gyration for t = 300 to 500 ps in the 1.25 × 106 atom 1:1 C:O system The cluster size distribution predicted by Lifshitz and Wagner (LSW) theory is given by the solid black line and could eventually be leveraged as an in silico material design tool substantially lowering experimental barriers associated with creating and refining carbon nanoallotrope synthesis protocols Broad family of carbon nanoallotropes: classification Luminescent carbon nanodots: emergent nanolights The properties and applications of nanodiamonds Mass production and dynamic imaging of fluorescent nanodiamonds Formation of diamonds in laser-compressed hydrocarbons at planetary interior conditions Ultrafast shock synthesis of nanocarbon from a liquid precursor Measurement of carbon condensates using small-angle x-ray scattering during detonation of the high explosive hexanitrostilbene Synthesis and properties of hydrogen-free detonation diamond ChIMES: a force matched potential with explicit three-body interactions for molten carbon Development of a multi-center density functional tight binding model for plutonium surface hydriding Application of the ChIMES force field to non-reactive molecular systems: water at ambient conditions Development of the ChIMES force field for reactive molecular systems: carbon monoxide at extreme conditions high-complexity reactive atomistic simulations Calculation of the detonation state of HN3 with quantum accuracy Investigating 3,4-bis(3-nitrofurazan-4-yl)furoxan detonation with a rapidly tuned density functional tight binding model Structure of carbon deposited from carbon monoxide on iron Carbon nanotubes and onions from carbon monoxide using Ni (acac) 2 and Cu (acac) 2 as catalyst precursors An essential role of CO2 and H2O during single-walled CNT synthesis from carbon monoxide Shock compression of liquid carbon monoxide and methane to 90 GPa (900 kbar) Aggregation kinetics of detonation nanocarbon Multistep nucleation of nanocrystals in acqueous solution Reaction-controlled morphology of phase-separating mixtures Fast parallel algorithms for short-range molecular dynamics Self-consistent equations including exchange and correlation effects Ab initio simulations of liquid carbon monoxide at high pressure The kinetics of precipitation from supersaturated solid solutions Theorie der alterung von niederschlagen durch umlosen (Ostwald-Reifung) Late stages of spinodal decomposition in binary mixtures Submicrosecond aggregation during detonation synthesis of nanodiamond A novel coarsening mechanism of droplets in immiscible fluid mixtures Download references This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 The project 17-ERD-011 was funded by the Laboratory Directed Research and Development Program at LLNL with S.B conceived and directed the study and contributed to analysis and interpretation developed the ChIMES model and conducted the simulations and analysis contributed to the generation of model training data developed the ChIMES model framework and related software wrote the paper and all authors contributed through scientific discussions Nature Communications thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work Download citation DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29024-x The following was sent by President Chopp to the campus community on April 12: I write with the sad news that Martin Ostwald The Swarthmore community has lost a towering intellect and a renowned teacher and scholar of the ancient Greek world was the consummate gentleman with a refined old world sensibility that never failed to charm Martin's plans to enter the rabbinate changed drastically after Nov he was arrested by the Gestapo and sent to a concentration camp near Berlin Through his mother's efforts to secure them passage on a Kindertransport he and his brother were released and sent first to Holland But they never saw their parents again-his father died at the Terezin concentration camp and his mother at Auschwitz Throughout his peripatetic existence as a refugee during World War II where fellow internees started a camp school he resumed his education and also taught Greek and Latin While working towards his high school certificate Martin made camouflage netting and knitted socks for the army the University of Toronto accepted Martin and about 20 others from the camp To assuage trustees worried about "enemy aliens" studying on campus while the country was at war in the school's Canadian Officer Training Corps in Classics from the University of Toronto in 1946 Martin then taught at Wesleyan University for one year and at Columbia for seven before Centennial Professor Emerita of Classics Helen North recruited him to Swarthmore "His influence on his students and colleagues was still unfolding," said Helen on the college and the classical world is beyond description He was wise and kind and infinitely helpful to us all." he taught honors seminars that combined Germanic philological rigor with a relaxed he also maintained a joint appointment with the University of Pennsylvania Martin continued to be a dapper presence on campus walking most days from his home on Walnut Lane to his study carrel in McCabe to continue his writing and research Martin was a prolific scholar with wide-ranging interests and an accessible style some of the most notable include a translation of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics a handbook on the meters of Greek and Roman poetry and several books on ancient Greek constitutional history: Nomos and the Beginnings of the Athenian Democracy; Autonomia: Its Genesis and Early History; and his magnum opus From Popular Sovereignty to the Sovereignty of the Law for which he received the Goodwin Award of Merit from the American Philological Association in 1990 an organization he served as president in 1987 Additional honors include his election as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1991 and as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1993 He was an editor of the Cambridge Ancient History from 1976-92 and a selection of his articles and essays was reprinted in 2009 by the University of Pennsylavania Press as Language and History in Ancient Culture solicited and co-edited more than 40 critical essays from their mentor's former students and colleagues for a Festschrift in his honor Martin also received honorary doctorates from the University of Fribourg Martin discussed the experience of receiving the latter He concluded: "My personal experiences show me how human beings are capable not only of degrading and dehumanizing themselves and their fellow men but also that people have the potential to achieve greatness by creating monuments in art and social justice that constitute the values of civilized life and it is their heritage that I have tried to pass on to my students." We will share information about the memorial service as soon as it is available A service was held at the Swarthmore College Friends Meeting House burial took place at the Har Yehuda cemetery in Lansdowne A lecture and reception in memory of Martin and Lore Ostwald will be held on Sun. "The motivation for Plato's theory of Forms," will be presented by Charles Kahn of the University of Pennsylvania There will be an introduction by Helen North The lecture will be held in Science Center 101 from 2-3:30 p.m The lecture will be followed by a reception from 3:30-6 p.m. in the Scheuer Room, Kohlberg Hall. Guests will be invited to share appreciations of Martin and Lore at the reception. All are welcome at the lecture and the reception, or both; those planning to attend the reception are asked to r.s.v.p. to Deb Sloman, Department of Classics, 610-328-8165, dsloman1@swarthmore.edu