Whether you are part of our community or are interested in joining us we welcome you to Washington University School of Medicine is internationally known for his multidisciplinary research on the neural basis of human cognition and the neurological mechanisms underlying stroke recovery Corbetta’s medical training began in Italy He received his medical degree from the University of Pavia in 1985 and then completed his postdoctoral and residency training at the University of Verona He then came to Washington University in St Louis in 1992 for a fellowship in neuro-imaging and cognitive neuroscience and rounded out his training with an internship and residency at Barnes-Jewish Hospital He joined the faculty as an assistant professor of neurology in 1996 was named head of stroke and brain injury rehabilitation in 2002 and three years later became a professor in three departments: Neurology Corbetta has authored 67 peer-reviewed publications The Corbetta lab has made landmark contributions toward understanding the neuronal bases of attention specifically its influence on visual cortex His clinical research focuses on how physical reorganization of the brain relates to behavioral recovery after stroke He has conducted pioneering investigations on stroke-related language disorders his work on stroke-related attention deficit disorders has provided some of the first direct evidence that brain injury can cause functional changes in brain regions far from the site of the actual injury which are related to behavioral impairment and recovery of function He is a member of nine professional societies and has received many honors for his work McDonnell Foundation Award in Cognitive Sciences the Marie Curie Chair in Cognitive Neuroscience from the European Union and the Norman Geschwind Award in Behavioral Neurology from the Academy of Neurology At WashU Medicine, we transform lives and shape the future of healthcare through pioneering research, world-class education, and unparalleled patient care. As one of the nation's largest academic clinical practices, we bring the full power of WashU Medicine to every patient, advancing treatment and training the medical leaders of tomorrow at Barnes-Jewish and St. Louis Children's hospitals and more than 130 clinics across Missouri and Illinois Consistently recognized among the nation's top institutions for research we are driven to challenge convention and elevate care for all Stories leap off the page in the Bowes Art and Architecture Library’s “Panoply of Pop-Ups” exhibition which showcases notable works from the library’s collection of three-dimensional books next to the library’s seminar room near the entrance was curated by librarian Katharine Keller and head of reserves Lorna Corbetta. The exhibition showcased books from a variety of themes “Creatures” included a full-page spread of a fuzzy spider from “The Pop-up Book of Phobias.” The whimsical animals and imaginative events of “Alice in Wonderland” were showcased in “Mythology,” while “Structure” spotlighted abstract lines such as those in “Cabaret Voltaire” by Howard Munson the Bowes’ quarterly exhibitions are an opportunity for the library to highlight books that might otherwise only be shown in classrooms The idea for this particular exhibit came about organically A colleague at the libraries had asked to look at a few pop-up books which led Keller and Cornetta to realize the extent of the collection of pop-ups Bowes Library was home to. The process of curation similarly happened naturally “ They kind of fell into themes by themselves,” Corbetta said The final selection contains only a third of the books they originally considered due to difficulties fitting them into the dimensions of the display case among other concerns. from Persian mythology in “Zahhak: the legend of the Serpent King” by Hamid Rahmanian and Simon Arizpe to the works of Japanese artist Hokusai in “Hokusai Pop-Ups” by Courtney Watson McCarthy a particular challenge was how fragile the books were “We didn’t know: is it going to damage a pop-up book to be popped up for two months?” Keller said To figure out how to handle and safely lay out the pieces Keller and Corbetta consulted conservators from Stanford Libraries The final exhibit uses magnets and other supports to preserve the more delicate works who works as a student assistant at the Bowes Library’s virtual resource center considered “Panoply of Pop-Ups” to be a favorite among the library’s displays The appeal lies mainly in the surprise of each page I think draws you in… it’s something that feels really unexpected,” Avalos-Iñiguez said Although pop-up books are usually associated with younger readers Corbetta considers the collection to be appropriate for everyone. “Adults are just grown up children,” Corbetta said Keller said older audiences may better appreciate the skill involved in the books’ construction “They’re like little works of engineering that are so amazing it’s way more technical than I think people give them credit for,” Keller said. “Panoply of Pop-Ups” will be available to view for the duration of winter quarter For audiences who wish to go beyond in their exploration of pop-up books the “Locked Stacks” collection at the Bowes Art and Architecture Library has an even more extensive collection 267 Desk Editor for the Reads Desk and beat reporter for Palo Alto University Academics Campus Life Graduate Students Business & Technology Equity Project Fall Sports Winter Sports Spring Sports Screen Culture Music Reads Columnists Editorials Letters from the Editor Letters to the Editor Op-Eds Video Podcasts Cartoons Graphics Tech © 2025 THE STANFORD DAILY PUBLISHING CORPORATION Privacy Policy Accessibility Advertise Donate and support The Daily when you shop on Amazon Yesterday, Marco Ballarini, the Mayor of the city of Corbetta in the metropolitan area of Milan, announced, via a post on his official account on Instagram, the arrival of Álvaro Morata, the Milan striker "Alvaro Morata to Corbetta The champion Alvaro Morata is our new Corbetta resident is finalising the official transfer to his new (wonderful) home in our city but I’m happy to welcome Álvaro Morata to our big Corbetta family And as Fabrizio Romano would say...ÁLVARO MORATA IS MOVING TO CORBETTA Morata did not take Mayor Ballarini's announcement well who joined Milan in the last summer transfer window from Atlético Madrid replied this morning to the Milan politician I do not own any valuable possessions; my only treasure is my children I thought the Municipality of Corbetta could guarantee me a certain level of privacy; instead I find myself having to change houses immediately due to your inability to use social media and protect your citizens." A post shared by Marco Ballarini (@marcoballarinisindaco) and website in this browser for the next time I comment This is a worldwide website dedicated for AC Milan in English: exclusive news and content about the Rossoneri world Copyright © 2021 Milanreports.com All rights reserved | C.F. NGLVTI92L14B936U | Responsible and editorial director: Vito Angelè Credits by Parrotto Web Solution Web Agency Please enter your username or email address to reset your password Copyright © 2021 Milanreports.com All rights reserved | C.F. NGLVTI92L14B936U | Responsible and editorial director: Vito Angelè Credits by Parrotto Web Solution Web Agency we’re always hesitant to throw around the word ‘authentic’ there’s no denying that the Italian food here is the real deal The Morningside dispensary opened quietly at the end of last year serving up an array of Italian delights to enjoy on site or take home to create a feast “being a chef has always been good because I could travel – I never had a problem finding a job as a chef” Almost 15 years ago, Jacopo’s thirst for travel propelled him across the world to Sydney – and he loved it so much, he decided to stay. “My working holiday turned into staying. It was fun, I was living in Bondi,” Jacopo reflects. “I ended up working for Icebergs and I became the head chef for five years” While working in Italian restaurants for his entire adult life has definitely fed into the Corbetta’s Kitchen concept it wasn’t until Jacopo (with a young family in tow) moved to Brisbane in 2020 that the idea started to bloom He started manning the kitchen at The Stores Grocer in West End where he introduced an array of fresh pasta gnocchi and Italian dishes – the crowd favourite being his lasagna alla bolognese he recognised that he might be onto something with his wonder dish I decided to try something with the lasagna I started producing it – one product only – and I [went] around the shops trying to sell the lasagna My first customer was The Standard Market Co And then other small boutique shops around Brisbane like Good Things Grocer and Meat at Billy’s.” Jacopo realised he needed a bigger production facility securing Corbetta’s Kitchen’s Morningside site in September 2024 located next door to The Morningside Meat Market and down the road from The Fish Factory With the new site also came new opportunities – to expand Jacopo’s wholesale and ready-to-cook range but also to offer made-to-order lunch options He officially opened the doors to the public in December “It took me a couple of months,” Jacopo tells me “I had to keep going with the production because it’s just me doing it” The end result was certainly worth the wait While the lasagne alla bolognese is still the star of the show Corbetta’s Kitchen has a whole lot more to offer you’re instantly met with the aromas of an Italian kitchen – bolognese bubbling The glass-doored fridges and freezers display a selection of take-home delights alongside Jacopo’s famous lasagna polpette al pomodoro and parmigiana di melanzane as well as Napoli sauce and ragu alla bolognese If you can’t wait until you get home (and with those scents floating from the kitchen Corbetta’s Kitchen serves up a freshly made lunch menu which can be enjoyed outside beneath umbrella-shaded picnic tables Corbetta’s traditional beef and pork lasagna headlines the lunch menu allowing you to sample a slice before you commit to the entire tray (trust us It’s joined in the hot box by house-made pork sausage rolls (the sausage mince made next door at The Morningside Meat Market using Jacopo’s recipe) and ricotta and spinach rolls as well as slabs of margherita focaccia pizza The menu also features two focaccia sandwiches You can watch in awe as Jacopo expertly constructs your focaccia – the first featuring mozzarella and heirloom tomatoes both cut fresh and dressed with extra-virgin olive oil and salt before joining fresh rocket black olive and basil tapenade atop the bouncy bread Freshly baked focaccia is drizzled with mayo and house-made salsa verde then topped with a glistening handful of wafer-thin sliced porchetta and rocket Rounding out the lunch menu are seasonal salads – think vibrant bowls of panzanella brimming with jewels of cherry tomatoes the menu will be bolstered by the addition of fresh take-home pasta While the Corbetta’s Kitchen offering is simple Jacopo makes almost everything in house himself (with the help of a small team) using the finest local and imported Italian ingredients he can find but Jacopo insists that it’s the quality of the ingredients that makes Corbetta’s dishes so delicious For Corbetta’s Kitchen’s opening hours and contact details, head to The Directory. 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About InDaily After the social media exchange earlier today between Milan striker Alvaro Morata and Corbetta Mayor Marco Ballarini—who, according to the Spaniard, violated his privacy by divulging news of his move to the town, the mayor responded on Radio Rossonera: saying 'I'd prefer to be less visible,' I would have taken down the post This has been blown out of proportion from his Instagram story Onana moved to Corbetta and it made the newspapers I don't understand why Morata made such a fuss now The people who learned from Morata that he had found a home in Corbetta were surprised by his reaction We have 20,000 residents; there aren't many houses here." after Morata's story replying to the Mayor earlier today claiming that he violated his and his children's privacy Marco Ballarini (the mayor who is a known Inter fan) shared a story with Inter's logo with the caption "ciao" Steve GoodmanPublished: Invalid Date ALVARO MORATA has said he had to make an instant house move - after his new town's mayor revealed where the striker lives Spain captain Morata, 31, joined AC Milan in July after leaving Atletico Madrid. The ex-Chelsea striker moved into a luxury home in Corbetta But the former £60million Chelsea record buy felt his family's security was endangered after Corbetta's mayor Marco Ballarini posted news of their arrival on social media The report swiftly went viral among townsfolk Euro 2024 winner Morata fumed on Instagram: "Dear Mr Mayor Thankfully I don't have anything of value "I thought that the town of Corbetta could afford me a certain amount of privacy. "Instead I find myself having to move house straight away, thanks to your inabilities to use social media and to safeguard your citizens." Mayor Ballarini had previously proudly written: "Alvaro Morata is a Corbetta citizen. Here We Go! is finalising the paperwork for the move to his marvellous new home in our town but it is with pleasure that I offer Alvaro Morata a welcome to our big family in Corbetta." Morata scored 24 goals in 72 Chelsea appearances following his 2017 arrival from Juventus However, he spent just 18 months at Stamford Bridge before returning home to join Atletico Our journalists strive for accuracy but on occasion we make mistakes. For further details of our complaints policy and to make a complaint please click this link: thesun.co.uk/editorial-complaints/ 2025 at 10:39am GMTGood communication underpins happy and healthy family relationships and many parents feel they’re on a one-way route when their child won’t open up It’s a problem that can get worse as kids get older leaving parents in the dark about how their child is feeling and how they’re coping with the unprecedented stresses and strains of modern life But for Children’s Mental Health Week (February 3-9) there’s no better time to ask why many children won’t talk to their parents, and what can mums and dads do about it? View this post on InstagramA post shared by Place2Be (@_place2be) “It’s becoming increasingly common to hear parents saying their children are speaking less to them,” says Cecilia Corbetta head of parenting at the children’s mental health charity Place2Be which organises Children’s Mental Health Week “There are a variety of reasons for this.” Corbetta says as children grow up they develop a sense of privacy and want to keep things to themselves plus they have a growing sense of independence which means they want to make their own decisions about what they share with their parents She adds: “There may also be a fear of judgement and not wanting to be criticised for what they share “And then there’s their personality – some children are quieter and feel less able to share their feelings.” Child and adolescent psychotherapist Jane Elfer, a member of the Association of Child Psychotherapists, stresses that parents wanting their child to talk to them is a really good start. “Your child will have a sense that you’re interested,” she explains. “It is of course, as you may recall yourself, tough to talk to a parent about feelings or perhaps some of the things going on in your life, especially as a teenager. But talking to children should start from the moment they’re born.” Here are the experts’ tips on how to get kids talking. It may sound strange, but the communication journey starts when a child is a baby, Elfer insists. “Of course a baby can’t understand what you’re saying at first, but they’ll know when you’re upset, anxious or angry as well as happy and enthusiastic. “It might feel strange to chat to a tiny baby, but it can help us to see the baby as someone who has feelings, awareness and a developing mind.” Although parents wouldn’t expect to have a deep and meaningful conversation with a toddler, Elfer explains that this is an age to build trust with your child, and set the foundations for chats when they’re older. “Building on the work you’ve put in with your baby will help in these sometimes turbulent years when your little one is trying to understand the world,” she says, explaining that when young children are filled with rage and upset it’s hard to get through to them, and sometimes a soothing word will help it pass. “Essentially, it’s sticking to what you know is good for your child, trying to help them understand restrictions in the best, most truthful way you can. It must be truthful as this, however hard, will build trust.” Elfer suggests parents should try to approach what children say about school life with curiosity, listening if they feel aggrieved, and being sympathetic. “Your loving hug, and understanding without judgement or taking sides, will enable your child to begin the task of living in society,” she says. Corbetta suggests ‘side-by-side conversations’ may help, explaining: “If your child struggles to open up, it might be helpful to set up situations where there’s no pressure to talk – sitting side-by-side in the car, or going for a walk, for instance.” In addition, she says it’s a good idea to spend time connecting in ways that your kids enjoy, explaining: “During times connecting with your child doing something fun, you may find your child will begin to communicate more about things they haven’t been able to share with you.” Parents should try to recall their own potentially turbulent teenage years and understand that the huge physical and emotional developments can lead to less communication. Elfer says: “There’s a huge instinctual need to pull away from family and form tighter bonds with friends – this is ordinary. “It’ll be very hard for some children to talk and they’ll get cross if you even try to embark on a conversation. Sometimes all you can do is provide the food and warmth they require.” She says parents should be available to hear their adolescent’s struggles and gently suggest what might help, without passing judgement, but stresses: “If your child just can’t put their feelings into words, you can’t make them talk of course.” She says if they shut themselves away, keep an eye on them and perhaps say something sympathetic. But if you’re really concerned about them or you see physical evidence of their distress, seek help, possibly through school counsellors or your GP. “Establishing a way of talking in the family about upsets, disagreements or rows really helps – your child will become more able to articulate their feelings. You can also describe your own feelings, even to your young child,” she says. “Help them see that we all have thoughts and feelings that at times can be challenging or difficult to understand.” Corbetta explains that it’s important to listen and understand, letting your child express themselves without giving them your opinions or asking lots of questions. “The more they feel they can share freely, the more they’ll want to talk about what they’re thinking and feeling.” Facebook pageTwitter feed RSS feed@2025 The Irish News Ltd View this post on InstagramA post shared by Place2Be (@_place2be) Please enable JS and disable any ad blocker “Green-Eyed Lady,” died on Sept He’d been diagnosed with Pick’s disease which slowly destroys the nerve cells in the brain similarly to Alzheimer’s disease The condition forced him into retirement upon diagnosis in 2009 where he gained fame around Denver as a child he switched to keyboards in his teen years serving in a couple of bands with guitarist Bob Webber one of which became the Moonrakers and cut four singles in the mid-‘60s They eventually picked up drummer Bob MacVittie and got signed to Liberty Records the label requested the band change their name due to the potential for “Chocolate Hair” to be seen as racially insensitive They decided to honor their Colorado roots and name themselves after Sugarloaf Mountain 1970’s Sugarloaf was an instant hit 24 on the strength of “Green-Eyed Lady,” a seven-minute song that fit in perfectly with the psychedelic heavy blues of the day It was edited a number of times for the purposes of radio airplay Despite a pair of minor hits in “Tongue in Cheek” and “Mother Nature’s Wine” from their second effort they were unable to build upon their momentum This coincided with Liberty virtually being shut down by their parent company they mocked the music industry in “Don’t Call Us We’ll Call You,” which their manager They added the single to I Got a Song and re-released it under the name of the song in 1975 and Corbetta carried on with Sugarloaf until 1978 He then joined Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons for a few years in early ‘80s and continued to work on the oldies circuit particularly with the Classic Rock All-Stars and an occasional Sugarloaf reunion The vocalist and keyboardist behind the 1970 smash \"Green-Eyed Lady\" has died.\nRead More He’d been diagnosed with Pick’s disease AC Milan striker Alvaro Morata has been forced to leave his home in Italy after the mayor of Corbetta let slip that the Spaniard was living there -- Four generations of Stephanie Post and her daughter Ashley Corbetta’s family have been bakers and now a fifth is growing up in the bakery Bea Sweet Treats has a brand-new storefront in Newburgh Post and Corbetta have been baking professionally under the Bea Sweet Treats name since early 2020 but the store is only three weeks old (and Ashley’s new baby is five weeks old so she’s obviously got it together.) A portrait of Post’s Grandma Bea is on the wall The bakery is dedicated to her because she’s where the family love of baking began “Grandma Bea taught me how to bake when I was in high school,” Post said “We did wedding cakes together; she taught me how to decorate and do all the flowers and everything many years and Ashley grew up on a chair watching me.” who graduated from Sullivan University in Louisville with degrees in pastry and culinary arts she worked at several bakeries and was the pastry chef at the upscale Anoosh Bistro but I didn’t think it was enough,” Corbetta said “I wanted to go to school and learn about pastries and bread.” The pair had discussed having a bakery in the past but Corbetta moved to Tennessee when she married three years ago when the couple decided to move back in 2019 Post and Corbetta worked by pre-order only out of a licensed kitchen gaining a big following for wedding cakes and other specialty cakes COVID started making life difficult for everyone and the wedding business took a downturn but Bea Sweet Treats took orders over Facebook and offered free delivery That only increased this year when people finally got to have their postponed weddings “We were getting so busy,” Post said and we were getting two or three or sometimes four weddings a weekend and we were having to turn down orders We decided we needed a bigger place.” The building they wound up in is actually larger than what they were imagining but now there’s a comfortable front room with pastry cases and coffee a roomy kitchen with space to add employees and grow and a side room with tables that can host meetings or private gatherings Walk-in customers are enjoying the daily selection of goodies offered in the bakery’s two large pastry cases You’ll always find a few whole cakes in the case if you need a birthday treat or just dessert for a family On the counter are big glass jars of jumbo-sized cookies fluffy cinnamon rolls have already garnered a good bit of fame on social media macarons and scones are other regular offerings The selection changes depending on the day although eventually they’ll always be available There are several gluten free choices as well 6:30 a.m.-3:30 p.m.; Saturday 7 a.m.-2 p.m.; Sunday - Monday closed Contact Aimee Blume at aimee.blume@courierpress.com Morata’s wife breaks silence: “We almost destroyed something so beautiful” Álvaro Morata regrets AC Milan transfer: "It was a big mistake" was forced to change his plans after a public post by Marko Balarini styled after transfer guru Fabrizio Romano's famous "Here we go!" announcements wrote on Facebook: "The champion is our new neighbor Milan's forward is finalizing paperwork for his new (beautiful) home in our town I’m happy to welcome him to our Corbetta family." Morata responded with a scathing message: "Dear Mr I own nothing valuable—my only treasure is the safety of my children I thought Corbetta would guarantee some privacy I had to move because you don't know how to use social media responsibly." Balarini responded casually by posting the Inter Milan crest along with the message: "Ciao ciao." The online exchange has divided public opinion—some found it humorous while others condemned the mayor's behavior as scandalous Nogomania.com is a premier destination for football enthusiasts delivering fresh and in-depth content from the heart of the Ex-Yu region's football scene Metrics details The mechanisms controlling dynamical patterns in spontaneous brain activity are poorly understood we provide evidence that cortical dynamics in the ultra-slow frequency range (<0.01–0.1 Hz) requires intact cortical-subcortical communication Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at rest we identify Dynamic Functional States (DFSs) transient but recurrent clusters of cortical and subcortical regions synchronizing at ultra-slow frequencies We observe that shifts in cortical clusters are temporally coincident with shifts in subcortical clusters with cortical regions flexibly synchronizing with either limbic regions (hippocampus/amygdala) or subcortical nuclei (thalamus/basal ganglia) especially those damaging white matter connections between basal ganglia/thalamus and cortex causing a bias toward abnormal network integration Dynamical anomalies observed 2 weeks after stroke recover in time and contribute to explaining neurological impairment and long-term outcome which structural changes determine these functional anomalies and how the interplay between cortex and subcortex contributes to them we test whether information about FC dynamics enhances explanation of behavioral deficits and acute-to-chronic explanation of behavioral recovery a Definition of the dynamic functional states (DFSs): (i) at first the time course of each subject was divided into 270 time-windows of width = 30 TR (600 s) and step = 1 TR The z-Fisher transform of the Pearson’s correlation coefficient among regions was computed at each sliding window to estimate the Dynamical Functional Connectivity (DFC) (ii) each DFC matrix was approximated by projecting on the leading eigenspace defined by the first eigenvector ${v}_{i}$ As the eigenvectors are defined less than the sign we avoided this issue by reconstructing the square matrix ${v}_{i}\times {v}_{i}^{T}$ (iii) the upper triangular part of these rank-one DFC matrices was vectorized and concatenated across windows and subjects in order to finally apply a time-wise K-means clustering algorithm with correlation distance and 20 replicates (iv) to define a set of K spatial DFSs Silhouette and Davies-Bouldin algorithms were used to search for the optimal number of DFSs Several choices of K (from 2 to 10) were used for supplementary analyses and comparisons b The K-means clustering associated each sliding window to a specific DFS thus for each subject we obtained a discrete time series $x\left(n\right)$ where each discrete value (between 1 and K) indicated the active state at that time point From these time courses it was possible to evaluate three different dynamical measures for each state To analyze the relationship among dynamical measures in healthy condition we performed a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) over all the dynamical measures c The projection of the sub-acute patients’ dynamical measures onto the PCs space and the anatomical brains lesions were used as input for a Ridge Regression algorithm aimed at identifying the lesion’s location that better characterized specific dynamic impairments A similar approach has been used with structural disconnections Five DFSs described the dynamic functional connectivity changes in healthy controls and stroke patients We used several representations to illustrate these functional states in cortical and subcortical regions a Representation of the 5 DFSs in matrix form (positive and negative weights are red and blue b The same DFSs are described through a circular graph representation the positive (red) and negative (blue) strongest links for each state are represented c Average and standard error of (left) the average homotopic inter-hemispheric connectivity within each network; (center) the average connectivity between dorsal attention network (DAN) and the default mode network (DMN) regions as a measure of task-positive and task-negative network integration); (right) the overall Newman’s modularity among cortical networks Source data are provided as a Source data file a Matrix representation of cortico-subcortical interaction. This is a zoom of Fig. 2a Positive and negative values are indicated with red and blue b Surface and volume projection of the first eigenvector of each DFSs Cortical regions are shown in surface (top) while subcortical regions in volume (bottom) c Loading of each subcortical regions in the two main subcortical components d Average connectivity between each subcortical component (SC1 and SC2) with each cortical network in the different DFSs which in turn are negatively correlated with sensory-motor-attention networks DFS2 is very similar to the ‘pathological’ static FC observed in stroke with low homotopic connectivity (${\rho }_{z}=0.37\pm 0.002$) nearly zero DAN-DMN connectivity (${\rho }_{z}=-0.07\pm 0.002$) This state is characterized by a strong integration of cognitive networks (DAN FPN) and a strong negative coupling of the VIS network with other networks and DMN maintain strong internal correlation DFS4 shows intermediate values of homotopic connectivity (${\rho }_{z}=0.42\pm 0.0014$) DAN-DMN connectivity (${\rho }_{z}=-0.14\pm 0.002$) we observe anti-correlation between a VIS-DAN-FPN cluster and a SMN-AUD-CON-VAN-DMN cluster in DFS4 all subcortical regions show positive correlation and appear strongly uncorrelated from cortex DFS5 shows intermediate values of homotopic (${\rho }_{z}=0.42\pm 0.0015$) and DAN-DMN (${\rho }_{z}=-0.09\pm 0.002$) connectivity and a very low value of modularity ($0.20\pm 0.0007$) it reflects another state of integration among almost all networks (like DFS2) except VIS and DMN that remain more segregated DFS5 differs from DFS2 for the absence of the negative correlation between VIS and all other networks a Two examples of average connectivity during time for cortical networks (top) and subcortical clusters (bottom) The vertical dashed lines indicate the switching between dynamic functional states (DFSs) b (Left) Probability distribution of the absolute values of connectivity differences between consecutive sliding windows Right) Cumulative density function of the conditioned probability of subcortical connectivity reorganization given a cortical connectivity reorganization Each colored line relates to a different cortical network The black line shows the cumulative density function under the null hypothesis of independence between cortical and subcortical changes The choice of parcellation did not influence our three main findings: (1) the ‘antagonistic’ dynamics of basal ganglia vs limbic regions represented by two anticorrelated principal components of subcortical dynamic FC; (2) the observation that different DFS are associated with different patterns of cortical/subcortical interactions as shown by different patterns of connectivity between the main subcortical clusters and cortical networks; and (3) the coordination between cortical and subcortical dynamics as shown by simultaneous cortical/subcortical FC shifts the main difference between results in the two parcellations is related to the thalamus the thalamus essentially grouped with the basal ganglia the new parcellation yields a more nuanced picture hinting at a functional split between different parts of the thalamus: the anterior portion of the thalamus groups with the basal ganglia whereas the posterior portion cannot be clearly affiliated to either of the two clusters (basal ganglia/limbic) A fine-grained analysis of the relation between thalamic nuclei and DFS is left for future work This figure represents two dynamical measures related to the dynamic functional states (DFSs) namely the fraction time (top) and the average dwell time (bottom) Comparisons between healthy controls (CTRs) and stroke patients (PATs) at different conditions are represented To be noticed: (i) fraction times and dwell times show similar patterns but fraction times are more sensitive to identify group differences and (ii) all dynamic impairments identified at the sub-acute stage The significance between each pair of groups has been tested independently for each of the 5 DFSs through one-sided non-parametric permutation tests and false discovery rate (FDR) correction for 15 comparisons The symbol * indicates p-value < 0.05 after FDR correction On each box: the central green line indicates the median and the bottom and top edges of the box indicate the 25th and 75th percentiles The whiskers extend to the most extreme data points not considered outliers (plotted individually using a dot) b Graphical representation of the significant differences in transition probabilities between CTRs and patients at the sub-acute stage: red arrows represent increase in probability while blue arrows stand for decreased transition probabilities more severe stroke patients are characterized by more frequent network integration states (DFS2,4) with a corresponding decrease of network segregation states (DFS1,3) there is a clear difference between stroke patients with severe or mild FC anomalies with the latter group preferring to spend more time in DFS5 than DFS2 sub-acute alterations in state dynamics recovered at 3- and 12-months post-stroke In a control analysis (SI paragraph S5, SI-Fig. 8) we verified that these results are not a consequence of motion scrubbing We considered both a more stringent and a more liberal scrubbing threshold (corresponding respectively to a higher and a lower number of censored frames) and we observed no qualitative impact on the results a Results of the Ridge Regression (RR) algorithm aimed at identifying possible existing relationships between the scores of the dynamical PCs and the anatomical lesions the scatter plots between real and estimated values are shown whose stroke severity (severe or mild) is color-coded and whose lesion size is described by the dot dimension R2 is the amount of variance explained by each model Only Dyn-PC1 and Dyn-PC2 are significantly described by RR models the estimated optimal weights are represented b Results of the Ridge Regression (RR) algorithm aimed at identifying possible existing relationships between Dyn-PC2 and the structural disconnections the scatter plot between real and estimated values is shown the significant disconnection weights are represented both in matrix form (right) and projected into the brain (left) The topography of lesions is significantly related to the variability of dynamic FC features (Fig. 6a) more segregation) in patients with cortical lesions but low (negative less segregation) in patients with white matter lesions—typically severe patients Voxels associated with large values of Dyn-PC1 are hence grouped in several separated clusters mirroring the heterogeneity of cortical lesions (${R}^{2}=0.51,\,p=0.02$ for Dyn-PC1) less segregation) for lesions in the subcortical white matter and basal ganglia (${R}^{2}=0.36,\,p=0.03$ for Dyn-PC2) No significant models explain Dyn-PC3 scores The analysis of structural disconnection shows a significant relationship with Dyn-PC2 (${R}^{2}=0.13,\,p=0.049$) (Fig. 6b) and disconnection matrix show that structural disconnection between brainstem/pallidum/putamen/thalamus and multiple cortical regions (DMN SMN) are associated with low Dyn-PC2 values neither damage of the polymodal association cortex nor long-range association cortico-cortical pathways are significantly related to abnormalities in cortical dynamics or transitions among cortical states While this negative result is preliminary given the low number of lesions at each cortical location our findings support the importance of subcortical activity and basal ganglia/thalamo-cortical communication in controlling cortical dynamics in the 0.1 Hz temporal scale This is also consistent with the temporal synchronization of cortical-subcortical states described above we wished to establish whether dynamic FC measures relate to behavioral deficits sub-acute dynamic state measures can improve clinical outcome explanation vis-à-vis static FC static FC impairments explain part of the inter-subject behavioral deficits’ variance at the sub-acute stage (2 weeks) We verified whether the addition of dynamical functional information to the static FC significantly increases the ability to explain behavioral deficits in terms of generalized linear models (GLM) through a likelihood ratio test which takes into account the number of regressors we applied the same test to examine whether the combination of static and dynamic regressors also improves over the model with only dynamical regressors This second step was aimed at testing whether both the static and the dynamic contributions are jointly needed to explain behavior The ratio likelihood test was used to test whether the addition of dynamic information to the static measures would significantly increase the ability of a generalized linear model to describe behavioral deficits (in terms of explained variance) Static measures were represented by static principal component (ST) values while dynamic information was represented by dynamic principal components a At first behavioral scores of sub-acute patients were considered When dynamical PCs were used as dynamic regressors only the global measure of behavioral impairment (NIHSS-total) resulted to be better estimated by the combination of static and dynamic regressors The bar plot shows the ${R}^{2}$ for the reduced (only static we used static and dynamic measures at sub-acute stage to explain the difference in behavioral scores from 2 weeks to 1 year the explanation of score changes in Language and Visual Memory task was significantly better the dynamic measures improve the sub-acute explanation of overall impairment (NIHSS) above static FC dynamic functional measures are suitable to explain future recovery of function of some individual domains static measures were less powerful to explain recovery This flexible arrangement determines a changing balance between segregation and integration Time-resolved FC patterns alternate between states of stronger integration (DFS2 and DFS5) and states of stronger segregation (DFS1 and DFS3) The integration/segregation balance is well captured by static FC metrics affected in stroke: the mean inter-hemispheric FC and whole-brain modularity reflect higher network segregation whereas abnormally strong DAN-DMN FC reflects higher network integration we speculate that the hippocampus may play a functional role in facilitating switches between different patterns of cortical activation Hence we suggest that mathematical models aimed at understanding the large-scale functional organization of the brain should include subcortical regions and subcortical-cortical interactions and they showed that the change in symptom severity in the first 3 months post-stroke (NIHSS change) was linked to dynamic connectivity involving DMN components previous work indicates that (i) stroke patients can exhibit an anomalous preference towards specific DFSs and (ii) dynamic FC anomalies tend to disappear with recovery Our work confirms and generalizes these findings by systematically analyzing longitudinal changes of dynamic FC in a relatively large stroke patient cohort including variable lesion sites and deficits in multiple behavioral domains by thoroughly analyzing cortical-subcortical interactions and relating dynamic FC changes with lesion topography our work suggests that subcortical regions play a key role in the altered dynamical balance of the brain after stroke one with strong segregation of VIS and SMN from other networks (akin to DFS2 in this work) and one with anticorrelations between visual-sensorimotor networks and DMN (akin to DFS1) Stroke patients overexpressed the first state: although Bonkhoff et al characterized this state as a state of anomalous segregation segregation mostly occurs for the visual/SMN network while cognitive networks are quite integrated (as in our DFS2) which is abnormally more frequent in highly impaired patients looks different in controls and in sub-acute patients The main difference is a loss of inter-hemispheric connectivity which is the most common abnormality of static FC at the sub-acute stage Behavioral recovery is related to the normalization of the dynamical measures that become similar to those of control subjects even though stroke patients with different degrees of stroke severity showed different sub-acute dynamic impairments Our results support the hypothesis that the functional reorganization of brain connectivity after stroke tends to the common goal of regaining a healthy profile rather than building on compensatory mechanisms we did note some differences between controls and sub-acute patients in DFS2 as discussed above Another possible reason for the absence of a “stroke state” could be the high heterogeneity of patients in terms of lesions and behavioral deficits as enhanced by the significant dynamical differences between more and less severe stroke patients to study the relation between FC/dFC and lesions/behavior we made a radical dimensionality reduction step: multivariate information about FC/dFC was effectively condensed in a short array of scalar quantities: three dynamical principal components dwell times and transition probabilities of different DFSs; and one static principal component summarizing the most common pattern of anomalous FC in stroke patients These scalar quantities cannot be assumed to faithfully represent all possibly relevant aspects of FC and dFC a possible alternative to this large dimensionality reduction would have been to use double-multivariate methods such as partial least squares or canonical correlation analysis but we are unsure whether this would have led to easily interpretable results we did not test for generalization of ridge regression findings to new samples therefore current findings of ridge regression analyses may be specific to the used subjects’ sample While performing nested cross-validation may enhance robustness of these findings we believe that conclusive evidence may be obtained only by replicating these findings in an independent subject cohort due to the long TR and the large impact of motion scrubbing (on average the amount of data available per subject is limited which limits the reliability of individual estimates of dynamic FC metrics while our group results indicate that dynamic FC metrics are correlated with stroke severity their use as individual biomarkers is currently limited Our work provides a step toward this direction by discovering the fundamental role of subcortical regions in cortical state dynamics and by proposing a definition of brain states and a set of measures useful to identify functional abnormalities This research complies with all relevant ethical regulations Written informed consent was obtained from all participants in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and procedures established by the Washington University in Saint Louis Institutional Review Board All participants were compensated for their time All aspects of this study were approved by the Washington University School of Medicine (WUSM) Internal Review Board Only subjects with at least 180 good frames were considered for the analyses 114 subjects were available at 2 weeks (sub-acute) 24 and 20 controls at the first and second acquisition without binarizing and with the symmetric treatment of negative weights The average modularity across densities was used as the final measure All the three metrics were computed in each sliding window The fraction time ${f}_{k}$ of each DFS is given by the percentage of times during which the state is active: where #$\left(a\right)$ indicates the number of times in which condition $a$ is verified The dwell time ${{\ell}}_{k}$ of each DFS measures the average length of periods in which each state remains continuously active where ${L}_{k}$ is the set with cardinality $\left|{L}_{k}\right|$ and whose elements ${L}_{k}\left[i\right]$ represent the duration of each period of continuous activity of state $k$: the transition probability from DFS $i$ to DFS $j$ ${DFSi} \; > \; j$ is given by the following equation: which reflects the ratio between the number of jumps from DFS $i$ to DFS $j$ over the total number of jumps Significant differences in terms of dynamical measures were tested across populations (controls chronic patients at 3 or 12 months) through generalized linear mixed-effects models (GLME) non-parametric permutation tests (when pairs of groups were tested) and one-way Kruskal–Wallis test (for comparisons between more than two groups) to identify abnormal patterns of states dynamics in sub-acute stroke We used the leading eigenvectors of the DFC matrices in each sliding window to define to quantify pattern reorganization in subcortical nuclei and cortical networks during time we considered the (19 × 1) subvector ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{{sub}}$ of the principal vector ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{i}$ obtained from the 19 entries corresponding to subcortical regions The vectors ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{{sub}}$ obtained in different sliding windows were entered as input of a spatial PCA aimed at identifying clusters of subcortical regions that evolve coherently We thus have ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{{sub}}(t)=P{{{{{{\bf{w}}}}}}}_{{sub}}(t)$ where P is the (19 × 2) matrix of principal component loadings As a measure of overall connectivity for each cortical network we considered the average of the subvector ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{{net}}$ obtained from the entries of ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{i}$ related to the network regions For each DFS, we computed a measure of connectivity between subcortical and cortical networks (see Fig. 3d) we considered the sub-matrix ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{{net}}{\times {{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}^{T}}_{{sub}}$ of ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{i}{\times {{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}^{T}}_{i}$ and we projected it onto the principal component space taking ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{{net}}{\times {{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}^{T}}_{{sub}}{P}^{T}$ we defined network-wise shifts in connectivity by computing the absolute value of the difference of ${{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{{net}}$ (for cortical networks) or ${P{{{{{\bf{v}}}}}}}_{{sub}}$ (for subcortical principal components) between two consecutive sliding windows These shifts followed a heavy tail distribution with frequent small values and infrequent large shifts we binarized the variability time courses (using a threshold of 0.29 corresponding to the 95th percentile) of the subcortical components and of each network To test whether subcortical and cortical shifts occurred simultaneously we evaluated the observed probability that given a cortical shift in a specific sliding window a subcortical shift happened in the same sliding window We then compared this observed probability with the conditional probability obtained under the null hypothesis of independent processes we estimated the probability of a shift as the percentage of ones in the binarized time courses both for subcortical components (${p}_{{sub}}$) and all cortical networks (${p}_{{net}}$) Under the assumption of independent processes we evaluated the conditional probability as follows: the presence of significant differences in these probability distributions over subjects was assessed by means of non-parametric Wilcoxon rank test and T2-FLAIR scans were used in conjunction to ensure complete lesion delineation surrounding vasogenic edema was included in the lesion definition for all patients All segmentations were reviewed by two board-certified neurologists (Maurizio Corbetta-MC- and Alexandre Carter) and were reviewed a second time by MC The final segmentations were used as binary lesion masks for subsequent processing and analysis steps Lesion masks were transformed into MNI atlas space using a combination of linear transformations and non-linear warps and were resampled to have isotropic voxel resolution The atlas data were accessed under the WU-Minn HCP open access data use term and second (ii) to link the parcel-wise disconnections matrices (regressors) to the dynamical PCs scores (dependent variables) the regression matrix is a binary matrix $X\in {R}^{{N}_{s}\times {N}_{p}}$ (${N}_{s}$ is the number of subjects and ${N}_{p}$ is the number of regressors or parameters) whose entry i–j is equal to 1 if voxel j is lesioned in subject i This analysis aimed to assign a weight ${\beta }_{j}$ to each voxel indicating its contribution to the considered dynamical PC values a positive (negative) ${\beta }_{j}$ indicate that a lesion in that voxel would be probably linked to a positive (negative) value in the considered dynamical PC RR adds an L2-normalization term to the ordinary linear regression to assign small coefficients to unimportant regressors the model weights vector $\beta$ is estimated as: where $X\in {R}^{{N}_{s}\times {N}_{p}}$ is the regressors’ matrix described above ${{{{{\bf{y}}}}}}\in {R}^{{N}_{s}}$ is the vector containing the (z-scored) scores of the considered dynamical PC $I\in {R}^{{N}_{p}\times {N}_{p}}$ is the identity matrix of dimension ${N}_{p}$ and $\lambda \in R$ is the regularization parameter a dimensionality reduction of matrix $X$ was required before applying the RR we applied a PCA on the 147,465 3-mm3 brain voxels and we considered the first PCs which explained at least 97% of the original variance as regressors $X$ for our RR models Besides resolving the dimensionality problem the PCA step also had the purpose to transform the original binary matrix into a set of continuous regressors $X$ was then z-scored with respect to the whole matrix For each of the three RR models (one model for each dynamical PC) the regularization parameter $\lambda$ was optimized by identifying a value within $\left[{10}^{-5},\;{10}^{5}\right]$ each RR model was trained and tested using a leave-one-out cross-validation loop (LOOCV) which used $47-1=46$ training data to estimate the model weights and applied them to the left-out patient to explain his behavioral score The optimal $\lambda$ (${\lambda }_{{opt}}$) value was the one that minimized the prediction error over the training set and the predictions obtained with ${\lambda }_{{opt}}$ were considered as the model regressors Model accuracy was assessed through the coefficient of determination ${R}^{2}$: and ${\hat{y}}_{i}$ is the estimated value of ${y}_{i}$ The statistical significance of each model was estimated through a permutation test with $N={{{{\mathrm{10,000}}}}}$ iterations the behavioral scores were randomly permuted across subjects and the LOOCV with $\lambda$ optimization was used to fit the RR model to the randomized scores The p-value for the observed ${R}^{2}$ was defined as the probability of the ${R}^{2}$ of the randomized dataset to be larger than the observed ${R}^{2}$ Only models with p-values < 0.05 were considered statistically able to explain the dynamical scores The same algorithm and procedure were used for the disconnections matrices (ii) after that the upper-triangular part of the matrix of each patient was vectorized whose entry i–j represents the percentage of disconnected streamlines of a specific pair of regions in subject i The significant weights obtained with RR were back-projected to the parcel-wise matrix indicating the most predictive pairwise disconnected link a PCA was run on each category and the first component was used as a domain score patients’ behavioral scores were z-scored w.r.t the behavioral scores were available for 45 patients (language) and 24 patients (visual) at the sub-acute stage at three months (one year) the following data were available: 45 (41) patients (language) which includes 15 subtests addressing: level of consciousness (LOC) The total NIHSS was used as an averaged measure of the clinical severity for each patient This score was available for 40 patients at the sub-acute stage and for 42 and 47 at three and twelve months In case of a significant increase in performance we also tested whether the complete (static + dynamic) model outperformed the model with dynamical regressors only to verify if all the contributions were relevant or not We used the regressors (static and dynamic) at the sub-acute stage to estimate both the behavioral scores at the sub-acute stage and the behavioral recovery The recovery was evaluated as the ratio between the difference of behavioral scores at 1 year and 2 weeks and the absolute value of the score obtained at 2 weeks For the implementation of the dynamical functional analysis only subjects with a sufficient number of good frames (300) after motion scrubbing were considered we selected only patients who participated to all the three recordings (2 weeks The number of control subjects with sufficient frames were 20 during the first visit and 20 during the second visit Our statistical analyses are based on common parametric tests (Wilcoxon rank F-test for Generalized Linear Mixed Effect Model likelihood ratio test) or simple non-parametric permutation-based tests which we implemented with customized code as detailed in the “Code availability” section Statistical tests are described in detail in previous subsections We always applied correction for multiple comparison whenever testing more than one hypothesis simultaneously Further information on research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article All custom algorithms used in this work are available at https://github.com/CorbettaLab/Favaretto2022NatComm Correspondence related to the code should be addressed to C.F Resting brain dynamics at different timescales capture distinct aspects of human behavior I of the Vortex: From Neurons to Self (MIT Press The Brain from Inside Out (Oxford University Press Large-scale recording of neuronal ensembles Response of neurons in the lateral intraparietal area during a combined visual discrimination reaction time task Single-trial spike trains in parietal cortex reveal discrete steps during decision-making Updated 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USA https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1400181111 (2014) A method for evaluating dynamic functional network connectivity and task-modulation: application to schizophrenia Altered ability to access a clinically relevant control network in patients remitted from major depressive disorder Dynamical exploration of the repertoire of brain networks at rest is modulated by psilocybin Temporally-independent functional modes of spontaneous brain activity Dynamic BOLD functional connectivity in humans and its electrophysiological correlates Time-varying functional network information extracted from brief instances of spontaneous brain activity Transient brain activity disentangles fMRI resting-state dynamics in terms of spatially and temporally overlapping networks Modeling brain functional dynamics via hidden markov models in 2013 6th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering (NER) 569–572 (IEEE Characterizing and differentiating brain state dynamics via Hidden Markov models Product Hidden Markov Models for subject-based dynamic functional connectivity analysis of the resting state brain in 2016 IEEE 13th International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI) 1291–1294 (IEEE Brain network dynamics are hierarchically organized in time Dynamic expression of brain functional systems disclosed by fine-scale analysis of edge time series Edge-centric functional network representations of human cerebral cortex reveal overlapping system-level architecture Imaging of acute stroke prior to treatment: current practice and evolving techniques Advances and challenges in stroke rehabilitation Deep brain stimulation for stroke: current uses and future directions Application of noninvasive brain stimulation for post-stroke dysphagia rehabilitation Small-world anatomical networks in the human brain revealed by cortical thickness from MRI Recovery of sensorimotor function after experimental stroke correlates with restoration of resting-state interhemispheric functional connectivity Optogenetic mapping after stroke reveals network-wide scaling of functional connections and heterogeneous recovery of the peri-infarct Normalization of network connectivity in hemispatial neglect recovery The effects of hemodynamic lag on functional connectivity and behavior after stroke Generation and evaluation of a cortical area parcellation from resting-state correlations Some methods for the classification and analysis of multivariate observations in Proceedings of the Fifth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematics Complex network measures of brain connectivity: uses and interpretations Focal brain lesions to critical locations cause widespread disruption of the modular organization of the brain Software system for interactive and quantitative visualization of multidimensional biomedical images Automated anatomical labeling of activations in SPM using a macroscopic anatomical parcellation of the MNI MRI single-subject brain Population-averaged atlas of the macroscale human structural connectome and its network topology Ridge regression: biased estimation for nonorthogonal problems In Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online (eds On the problem of the most efficient tests of statistical hypotheses Download references are supported by FLAG-ERA JTC 2017 (grant ANR-17-HBPR-0001) are supported by Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Padova e Rovigo (CARIPARO) - Ricerca Scientifica di Eccellenza 2018 – (Grant Agreement number 55403) has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Framework Programme for Research and Innovation under the Specific Grant Agreement No is also supported by MIUR - Departments of Excellence Italian Ministry of Research (MART_ECCELLENZA18_01); Ministry of Health Italy Brain connectivity measured with high-density electroencephalography: a novel neurodiagnostic tool for stroke - NEUROCONN (RF-2008 −12366899); H2020 European School of Network Neuroscience - euSNN H2020-SC5-2019-2 (Grant Agreement number 869505) Department of Physics and Astronomy “Galileo Galilei” Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR 7289 Department of Information Technologies and Communications (DTIC) Institució Catalana de Recerca I Estudis Avançats (ICREA) Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM) The authors declare no competing interests Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Download citation DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-32304-1 Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: a shareable link is not currently available for this article Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science when the mayor of Corbetta Marco Ballarini he had official confirmation that the Spanish striker Alvaro Morata had taken a house in his city 15 kilometers from Milan instead of in the chic and VIP neighborhoods of the metropolis he couldn't believe it: hand to the keyboard and immediately a nice post on Facebook to announce urbi et orbi to the world that "Spanish champion Morata has chosen our city to come and live with his family" unstoppable despite his heart always beating for Inter Alvaro Morata is finalising the paperwork for his new wonderful villa in our city" He almost gave his address and neighborhood to organize a welcoming committee.. He probably chose Corbetta to stay away from the spotlight and above all thinking about the safety of his family His thoughts will surely have gone to the armed robberies in homes of which many footballers have been victims and sent an angry email to the centre-right mayor: "Thank you Luckily I do not own any valuable assets except my children Then he doubled down: "I thought Corbetta would have guaranteed me a certain privacy and instead I find myself forced to change residence...." His post has obviously already attracted a flood of comments Between those who are enthusiastic about the arrival (now very doubtful) of the champion and the many who insult him for having so grossly violated the privacy of the Red Furies' striker having learned of the player's reaction and his decision to move elsewhere even before he had settled in the city Mayor Ballarini wanted to say goodbye to the champion in his own way with the Inter symbol and the words “Ciao Ciao” The many Milan fans in Corbetta probably didn't like it.. Robin Srl Company subject to the management and coordination of Monref Volume 7 - 2016 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00587 Prior research on infant reaching has shown that providing infants with repeated opportunities to reach for objects aids the emergence and progression of reaching behavior This study investigated the effect of movement consequences on the process of learning to reach in pre-reaching infants Thirty-five infants aged 2.9 months at the onset of the study were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups Two groups received a 14-day intervention to distinct reaching tasks: (1) in a contingent group a toy target moved and sounded upon contact only A third control group did not receive any intervention; this group’s performance was assessed only on 2 days at a 15-day interval Results revealed that infants in the contingent group made the most progress over time compared to the two other groups Infants in this group made significantly more overall contacts with the sounding/moving toy and they increased their rate of visually attended target contacts relative to non-visually attended target contacts compared to the continuous and control groups Infants in the continuous group did not differ from the control group on the number of hand-toy contacts nor did they show a change in visually attended target versus non-visually attended target contacts ratio over time they did show an increase in movement speed presumably in an attempt to attain the moving toy These findings highlight the importance of contingent movement consequences as a critical reinforcer for the selection of action and motor learning in early development Through repeated opportunities to explore movement consequences infants discover and select movements that are most successful to the task-at-hand This study further demonstrates that distinct sensory-motor experiences can have a significant impact on developmental trajectories and can influence the skills young infants will discover through their interactions with their surroundings research efforts have increasingly shifted toward identifying which types of early experiences can help the integration of these multiple systems in fostering the emergence of infant reaching significantly outperformed infants who received non-object-directed social experience these studies discovered that even very short-term durations of 1 or 2 days of reaching-specific intervention sufficed to drive significant results in the amount of reaching performed in babies compared to control babies who only received a non-object-directed social intervention the object was attached to the wrist of the infant performances were always compared with an age-matched The researchers consistently found that infants in the “sticky mittens” group performed more toy-directed behaviors than infants in any of the other groups which led them to conclude that the simulation of grasping provided by the mittens served to drive increased toy-directed behavior These studies clearly highlighted the importance of exploratory opportunities to the discovery and emergence of new skills in novel tasks Discovery of new actions or patterns of action occurred through the exploration of varied movements and their consequences we aimed to further explore the notion that direct hand-toy contact provides value for driving movement exploration and selection of adaptive reaching responses around the time of the emergence of reaching we hypothesized that if hand-toy contact is particularly important for learning to reach then emphasizing the consequence of such direct hand-toy contact may help precipitate the selection process and trigger a steeper developmental curve in reaching If the engine of the selective process is the repetition of action and perception cycles in relation to discovered valuable action consequences then task manipulations designed to highlight different movement consequences should spark and drive action-perception cycles selecting distinctive movement processes this study aimed to manipulate the consequences of the immediate hand-toy contact to assess how variations in such movement consequences would lead to distinct developmental outcomes or different kinds of movement enhancement We rooted our sensory-motor manipulations in two well-established lines of empirical research in order to examine the impact that each enhancement would have on the early reaching selection process First, work in the mastery motivation literature revealed that exposure to responsive toys, or toys activated contingently upon infants’ actions, in the everyday environment drove higher levels of task persistence during the first year of life (Jennings et al., 1979) the researchers operationalized persistence as the continued search for feedback from objects exposure to responsive toys at contact may increase infants’ persistence at reaching for and activating the toys and consequently enhance the discovery and selection process To examine the initial trajectory of reaching as a function of repeated exposure to toys responsive to touch we provided infants with 14 days of repeated reaching exposure with toys that moved and sounded only upon hand-toy contact Working with the assumption that hand-toy contact providing haptic feedback is already a valuable movement consequence for the selection of appropriate reaching responses we predicted that using contingently activated toys would further enhance the consequence of hand-toy contact and aid the creation of an even stronger reaching-specific value function over time The discovery of the contingency between movement and consequence would drive infants’ persistence to repeat such an event enhance and sustain the action-perception cycle even more This would lead to a significant increase in reaches over time where the target is being visually attended relative to hand-toy contacts happening without visually attending the target we would expect to see a change in movement patterns as revealed by kinematic measures that are appropriate to the reaching context synchronous moving and sounding toys in the reaching space may increase infants’ toy-directed attention A by-product of such toy-directed attention may be greater attempts at toy-directed reaching activity which could increase the likelihood of hand-toy contact and enhance infants’ persistence at reaching for the toy This persistence may ultimately aid the discovery and selection process the task differed from the condition described above in the key point that toy motion is independent from hand-toy contact and therefore not a direct consequence of contacting the toy To examine the developmental trajectory of reaching as a function of autonomously activated we provided infants with 14 days of repeated exposure to such self-activated toys We inferred that if the moving and sounding toy captured infants’ attention then infants would look at the toy more and show higher amounts of movement activity to attempt to reach for the toy could increase the likelihood of hand-toy contact thereby creating a reaching-specific value function possibly aiding the selection of successful movements for the reaching task with the increased reaching attempts we would expect a concomitant increase in movement kinematics appropriate to the reaching context over time all infants included in the final sample were born full term and possessed no known sensory no infant demonstrated the ability to successfully reach for and contact toys on the first day of the study We followed the 22 infants in our two intervention groups for 16 consecutive days (1 day pre-test The 13 control infants were only seen on the first pre-test day and last post-test day which corresponded to day 16 in the intervention groups This study and all procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Tennessee Parents received an explanation of the study procedures and were shown the laboratory and equipment to be used prior to consenting participation They were informed that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw their child from the study at any time without penalty Parents received $5 on day 1 and on day 16 and a baby book containing a collection of pictures capturing the daily progresses of their infant’s reaching During all testing sessions infants sat in a custom-designed infant seat reclined 10 degrees from vertical. A foam strap around infants’ torsos provided full postural support and permitted a full range of motion of the limbs. We placed the seat directly behind a wooden table (15′′ wide × 25′′ long × 15′′ high) which we used for toy presentation. The table height was waist high for all infants (see Figure 1) Screenshot of gaze camera to depict the experimental setup for contingent (Left) and continuous (Right) conditions Toys used in the laboratory sessions were a mixture of small, colorful plastic spheres (5 cm diameter) comprised of non-toxic materials. These objects did not move nor make sound even upon hand-toy contact. Toys used for laboratory sessions of the control infants were a mixture of small, visually attractive colorful Peek-a-Blocks and plastic animal squirt toys (5–6 cm in diameter; see Williams et al., 2015b) These toys were used with the control group infants in place of the colorful plastic spheres to maintain their attention and motivation to the task given that infants in this group were never exposed to sounding and moving toys Toys for the contingent group moved and sounded only upon hand-toy contact colorful plastic spheres by placing a bell inside Velcro-covered platform on a 1 ½ inch stiff spring The spring securely sat on top of a 3 ½ inches tall × 4 ½ inches wide wooden block which fit snuggly through a hole on the surface of the custom-made wooden table cover Once the block was inserted in the table hole its top was flush with the top of the table so that only the toy on the spring extended through the table A plain uniformly colored cover atop the table provided a smooth surface around the toy Toys mounted on the spring for the contingent group oscillated and sounded with the smallest of hand-toy contact Toys for the continuous group were the same small colorful plastic spheres as for the contingent group they sat on top of a Velcro-covered platform on a 1 ½ inch stiff plastic rod The rod rested securely into a 3 ½ inches tall × 4 ½ inches wide custom-designed toy motor All parts of the toy motor were encased in a hard plastic covering which also fit snuggly in the table surface opening so that the top of the motor casing was flush with the table cover A button located under the table on the side of the motor casing activated the toy such that the toy oscillated with the sounding bell inside in a left-right motion for one full minute and then autonomously shut off toy oscillations were independent of hand-toy contact three video cameras captured the looking and reaching behavior of the infants placed directly across the table at infant eye level captured gaze and reaching behavior while the two remaining cameras situated 90 degrees left and right of the infant USA) merged the images from the two lateral cameras to create a split-screen image and sent it to a VCR for recording only the video camera situated directly across the table at infant eye level was used It captured both gaze and reaching behavior of the infants and recorded it to a VHS-C cassette During all laboratory sessions a Mini Flock of Birds motion analysis system (Ascension Technology Corp. The experimenter applied a mini bird marker (8 mm) to the dorsal side of each wrist and secured the wires up the arm and behind the infant seat with hypoallergenic tape The Mini Flock of birds sampled movement at 120 Hz We synchronized the video and kinematic recordings with a frame counter (Horita USA) superimposed on the video recording that started and stopped when the experimenter started and stopped the motion analysis system Testing occurred in three phases: (a) Pre-intervention assessment (day 1 in laboratory) (b) 14-day sensory-motor intervention (days 2–15 in home) and (c) Post-intervention assessment (day 16 in laboratory) The contingent and continuous groups participated in all three phases of the study while the control group only participated in the pre- and post-assessment phases Two experimenters traveled to the infants’ homes for those assigned to the contingent and continuous groups to provide the 14 daily sensory-motor experience sessions Home sessions occurred in a low distraction area of the home and in a similar manner as the pre-intervention assessment session one experimenter sat directly across the table from the infant and placed one object at midline and 14 cm in front of the infant the experimenter switched on the motor immediately after placing the toy on the table the experimenter remained silent and did not interfere with the infant’s behavior while the second experimenter kept track of trial duration As in the pre-intervention assessment session infants had the opportunity to repeatedly reach for and contact the toys we reassessed all infants’ gaze and reaching behaviors after the 14-day sensory-motor intervention We conducted this session in exactly the same fashion as the pre-intervention assessment on the first day of the study We coded all video recordings of gaze and reaching behavior with The Observer XT-9 (Noldus Information Technology All kinematic data were processed with a custom-made MATLAB program (The Mathworks We conducted all analyses on the 1-min time periods when toys were in infants’ reaching spaces we used parametric analyses when data met all appropriate test assumptions we calculated the visually attended target contact index (a z-score) to capture the relative distribution in amounts of visually attended and non-visually attended target contacts in a single measure we calculated a difference score between the number of visually attended target contacts and the number of non-visually attended target contacts then divided the difference by the square root of the sum of contacts These standardized scores gave us clear benchmarks for comparison on amount of visually attended target reaching responses Looking measures are reported herein as the percent of trial duration spent looking to each area we analyzed the kinematic times series associated with time periods during which infants looked at the toy To determine the portions of the time series corresponding to when infants looked at the toy we synchronized the lateral reaching cameras which contained the time-frame counter for the kinematics we recorded the kinematic time codes corresponding to periods when infants looked at the toy and entered these into the MATLAB program Kinematic computations included the mean time that the preferred reaching hand spent within 10 cm of the toy (Williams et al., 2015b) which we computed based on the resultant distance between the preferred hand position and the pre-determined toy position we computed the mean peak velocity of the preferred hand The MATLAB program analyzed the velocity profile with a 3-point technique in order to determine peaks in the profile it divided the sum of all peak values by the total number of velocity peaks identified to produce a mean peak value Due to sporadic fussiness not all infants in the contingent and continuous conditions completed 10 full trials each day did not differ significantly between the contingent (M = 103.45 Separate Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks tests revealed that infants in the contingent (MDay16 = 27.64 SEMDay16 = 4.47) groups exhibited significant increases in total contacts between pre- and post-intervention day [Z = -2.675 curve estimation analyses over the 16-day period showed that the contingent and continuous groups displayed significant linear growth in total contacts [F(1,14) = 65.514 planned Mann–Whitney comparisons with the control group on post-intervention day values revealed that the continuous group did not display significantly more contacts relative to the control group [U = 46.50 while the contingent group displayed significantly higher total contacts relative to the control group [U = 38.00 infants in the contingent group had a visually attended target contact index that was greater than 1 standard deviation unit relative to the continuous group index the contingent group z-score values were above 1.65 (90% confidence level) we examined whether the number of visually attended target contacts performed by the infants on the post-intervention day was an accurate reflection of the hand-toy contact history performed during the prior intervention days This was relevant because there was much between subject variability on the last day performance and toy motion and sound were removed on post-test day All of our three samples contained infants who did not produce any visually attended target hand-toy contacts on that last day despite the 14-day intervention (36% in the contingent group and 27% in the continuous group Some other infants produced as little as 1 or 3 visually attended target contacts on the last day Here we asked whether the infants with higher contact performance on the last day were also the infants who most likely discovered the consequences of their actions through their contact history we asked whether the poor performers on the last day of the study were also the ones with a history of lower visually attended target contacts over the 14-day intervention We anticipated that this analysis would shed further light on the respective impact our interventions on the process of discovering action consequences on learning to reach A 2 (Performance Group) × 16 (Day)repeated measures ANOVA on the contingent group using a Greenhouse–Geisser adjustment for lack of sphericity revealed a significant main effect of Performance Group [F(1,9) = 13.492 and Performance Group × Day interaction [F(2.691,24.222) = 4.817 The same analysis performed on the continuous group revealed no significant differences between Performance Groups This indicated that high versus low performance groups only differed in the contingent group aimed at comparing high performers between intervention groups revealed a main effect of Group [F(1,8) = 7.429 but no Group × Day interaction [F(3.213,25.701) = 2.691 when we split infants based on the number of visually attended target contacts performed on the last day we were able to show: (a) that the last-day performance accurately captured the history of contacts performed throughout the intervention period and (b) that only the high-performing infants in the contingent group benefitted from the contact enhancement intervention by displaying a growing history of hand-toy contacts No infants in the other performing groups did To assess whether our intervention groups differed in their distribution of looking behavior at the start of the study we performed a 3 (Group) × 5 (Look Area) repeated measures ANOVA on the Day 1 normalized looking durations To adjust for a violation of sphericity we applied a Greenhouse–Geisser correction There was no Group effect [F(2,32) = 0.839 η2 = 0.05] and no Group by Look Area interaction [F(2.906,46.504) = 2.727 there was a significant effect of Look Area [F(1.453,46.504) = 59.370 infants looked at the toy the most (52.55%) All pairwise comparisons between the looking areas were significant at the α = 0.05 level To assess whether our intervention groups differed in their distribution of looking behavior at the end of the study we performed a 3 (Group) × 5 (Look Area) repeated measures ANOVA on the Day 16 normalized looking durations we used a Greenhouse–Geisser adjustment for a sphericity violation There was no Group effect [F(2,32) = 0.550 As on Day 1 we found a significant effect of Look Area [F(1.420,45.427) = 131.895 infants looked at the toy the most (48.71%) Pairwise comparisons revealed that in the Contingent and Continuous groups infant looked significantly more at the toy than all other look areas (p < 0.05) but showed equal looking elsewhere The control group looked significantly more at the toy than all other look areas there was a significant Group by Look Area interaction [F(2.839,45.427) = 4.626 Control infants looked significantly more at their right hand relative to continuous infants (p = 0.042) control infants spent significantly less time than contingent infants (p = 0.001) and marginally less time than continuous infants (p = 0.065) looking elsewhere Figure 5 depicts the percent of trial duration that infants in the contingent and continuous groups looked to each area from pre- to post-intervention To examine whether the distribution of looking behavior changed over time we performed a 2(Group) × 5 (Look Area) × 16 (Day) repeated measures ANOVA with a Greenhouse–Geisser correction There were no main effects of Group [F(1,20) = 1.000 η2 = 0.048] nor Day [F(1,20) = 1.885 but a main effect of Look Area [(1.153,80) = 75.025 infants tended to look elsewhere the most (45.18%) There was also a Look Area by Day interaction [F(9.038 η2 = 0.165] indicating a change in looking behavior over time in some Look Areas Follow-up testing confirmed that in both intervention groups infants decreased their amount of looking at the toy over time while they increased their amount of looking elsewhere [F(7.245,20) = 4.866 These trends in looking behavior did not differ between high and low performers in either intervention groups Figure 6 (left) reports the mean peak velocity of the preferred reaching hand on the pre- and post-test days of the study for all three groups A 3 (Group) × 2 (Day) repeated measures ANOVA revealed no significant effect of Group [F(2,32) = 0.668 η2 = 0.04] nor of day [F(1,32) = 0.314 there was a significant Group by Day interaction [F(2,32) = 4.785 Post hoc analyses indicated that while the contingent and control groups showed no significant change in peak velocity the continuous group displayed a significant increase in peak velocity between pre- and post-test day (p = 0.011) Figure 6 (right) displays the mean percent of time infants had the preferred reaching hand within 10 cm of the toy between pre- and post-test days of the study Separate Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks tests revealed that only the contingent group exhibited a significant increase in the time spent within 10 cm of the toy [Z = -2.490 The increases displayed in the continuous and control groups were not significant [Z = -1.156 we examined the impact that hand-toy contact consequences had on the developmental trajectories of infant reaching behavior we manipulated the context in which toy sound and motion would be activated to examine how such context enhancements could augment infants’ persistence at reaching for the toys A critical difference between intervention groups was that while one group (contingent) experienced such enhancement solely during successful hand-toy contacts the other group (continuous) was able to experience such enhancement continuously whether attempting to reach or not and independently from successful hand-toy contacts Using tenets drawn from Dynamic Systems Theory and the Intersensory Redundancy Hypothesis on the other we predicted that if the toy manipulations served to enhance the action-perception cycle then infants in both intervention groups would increase the frequency of hand-toy contact with the moving and sounding toy compared to the non-intervention control group which had visually attractive Such findings would support the interpretation that those infants followed different routes to discover and select effective arm movements for the reaching task our results revealed that infants in the contingent group were the ones who benefitted the most from their intervention Mean total contacts (±1 SEM) for the contingent (Left) and continuous (Right) groups by day Control group values for pre- and post-test days are shown on each graph Mean visually attended contact indices (z-scores) for each group by day The dashed line at zero indicates no preference for visually attended or non-visually attended contacts Points with an asterisk are index scores that are greater than z > 1.65 indicating performance level with a 90% confidence Mean total visually attended contacts (±1 SEM) for high and low performers in the contingent (Left) and continuous (Right) groups Further support may be seen in the visually attended target contact index analyses where infants in the contingent group began to display many more visually attended to non-visually attended target contacts over time relative to the continuous group we believe that the contingent infants were more effectively selecting the successful reaching movements over time through the creation It is possible that the monotony of the toy motion did not serve to attract visual attention and maintain sustained attention to the toy as much as we thought it would in this group Another possibility is that the low amount of hand-toy contacts in the continuous group compared to looking times that are equivalent to those of the contingent group reflect a different attention-action ratio than the one present in the contingent group We can speculate that infants in the continuous group may have spent more time processing the synchronous multimodal event in an attempt to map those perceptual characteristics to their movements to meet task demands may provide an indirect assessment of such an ongoing process Mean percent trial of looking duration by Look Area for infants in the contingent (Left) and continuous (Right) groups We can infer from their results that infants modified their reaching speeds to accomplish their task but in our study we explicitly showed the kinematic changes infants’ value functions built up through their respective sensory-motor experiences in such a way as to drive the selection of movements (Left) Mean peak velocity of the preferred reaching hand by group (Right) Mean percent of time that preferred reaching hand was within 10 cm of the toy those infants may have also been slower at mapping their motor behavior onto the moving toy pattern to make contact and one strategy available for success would be to increase movement speed Also, our kinematic analysis showed that the contingent group was the only group to show a significant increase in the amount of time spent with the preferred reaching hand near the toy. We know that infants gradually move their arms closer to midline (White et al., 1964; von Hofsten, 1984; Spencer and Thelen, 2000) and this is true of our results as well All infants did show an increase in the amount of time spent with the preferred reaching hand near the toy only the contingent group’s increase reached statistical significance we believe that over the course of the study having been exposed to the contingently activated link between reaching movements and successful outcome the contingent infants developed a more precise value function which allowed them to select movements that would increase the likelihood of success in the reaching situation after examining the emergent developmental trajectories of reaching behavior as a function of early sensory-motor experience researchers should examine how such experiences could lead to distinct cascadic effects over developmental time reach onset entails a number of behavioral ramifications at multiple levels Understanding how these ramifications could be tied to specific early perpetual-motor experiences is an important developmental question Another potential limitation may be the fact that the control group on days 1 and 16 was presented with different toys than the infants in the contingent and continuous conditions it could be possible that the observed differences in reaching behavior between our intervention conditions and the control group resulted from using different toys These toy differences could have captured infants’ attention differentially affected the amount of reaching behavior produced While it is true that we discovered differences in reaching behavior we did not find such differences to be related to differences in looking behavior Our analysis of day 16 looking behavior revealed that infants in the contingent and control groups spent equal amounts of time visually attending the toys the control infants were the only group to allocate significantly more time looking to the toy than the other four look areas If infants in the control group had lacked interest in the toys we would have seen less looking at the toy relative to both the other conditions and look areas despite these between group toy differences it does not appear that looking results on the final day may have driven the observed differences in reaching behavior and finally followed by the continuous group with the less steep progress an explanation based on operant conditioning alone falls short in capturing all the factors and behavioral complexity tied to the emergence and subsequent development of new skills we see the combination of Dynamic Systems Theory and Approximate Optimal Control as complementing one another in accounting how brain and experience all contribute to different extents to our understanding of the behavioral learning process observed we capitalized on adding further consequences to the hand-toy contact event by providing infants with responsive toys we infer that the contingently activated toy highlighted the movement consequence of hand-toy contact which increased the repetition of action-perception cycles This repetition of action and perception drove the creation of a precise value function that allowed infants in the contingent condition to more efficiently discover and select reaching movements adaptive to the task-at-hand and wrote the first draft of the manuscript and contributed to writing and revising of first draft provided by JW This work was supported by a small research grant from the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity awarded to JW The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest We are grateful to the parents and infants who participated in this study We also thank Lauren Cobb and many undergraduate students who provided valuable assistance in data collection and data coding 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This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited in accordance with accepted academic practice distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms *Correspondence: Joshua L. Williams, am9zaHVhLndpbGxpYW1zQGFybXN0cm9uZy5lZHU= Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher 94% of researchers rate our articles as excellent or goodLearn more about the work of our research integrity team to safeguard the quality of each article we publish The mayor of the Italian municipality of Corbetta proudly announces that Álvaro Morata has moved The Milan striker doesn't like this at all - he immediately announces his move "As Fabrizio Romano would say: ÁLVARO MORATA IS MOVING TO CORBETTA the mayor of the municipality of Corbetta (approx 17,000 inhabitants) in the metropolitan city of Milan gave the Spaniard a warm welcome via Instagram on Wednesday this is not an early April Fool's joke European champion Álvaro Morata is our newest resident in Corbetta!" said Ballarini but I'm delighted to welcome Morata to the Corbetta family." Morata himself is less enthusiastic about the big announcement whose safety you have endangered," the striker who moved from Atlético Madrid to AC Milan in July Spain's European champion captain is very angry "I had hoped that Corbetta would have guaranteed me some privacy but I see myself forced to move immediately because you are not able to use social media and protect your fellow citizens," Morata's clear message read "Ciao ciao," he wrote in his Instagram story - and showed the club logo of Inter Milan the Rossoneri's city rivals and arch-enemies Morata also seems to be able to take things with a sense of humor he shared a story from team-mate Davide Calabria showing a banner at Corbetta station Sorry about that. Use the UAB search below to help locate your missing page or return to this site's homepage Get Pollstar News and more delivered right to your inbox with Pollstar Daily Pulse By signing up, you agree to Pollstar’s Privacy Policy and Terms of Use Corbetta died Sept. 16 from a rare form of dementia known as Pick’s Disease, reports The Denver Post. Released in summer 1970, “Green Eyed Lady” underwent several edits to shorten its six minute-plus runtime to something more radio friendly. The original version of the song, with its extended instrumental introduction along with keyboard and guitar solos, still captivates 46 years after its release. Sugarloaf returned to the charts in 1974 with a single that depicted an artist trying to get record company execs interested in his band, saying at one point that the group “performs in the nude.” Despite the musician’s attempts to gather support the answer is always the same – “Don’t Call Us, We’ll Call You.” But Corbetta was hardly a stranger within music industry circles and was known for being able to connect friends with music bigwigs via a single phone call. Following his years with Sugarloaf, Corbetta worked as the music director for Frankie Valli. He also toured with the Classic Rock All Stars and co-wrote songs for Grace Jones and Peabo Bryson. Corbetta and Sugarloaf were inducted into the Colorado Music Hall Of Fame in 2012. Volume 10 - 2019 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00822 This article is part of the Research TopicModeling Play in Early Infant DevelopmentView all 16 articles This longitudinal study assessed how infants and mothers used different postures and modulated their interactions with their surroundings as the infants progressed from sitting to walking Thirteen infants and their mothers were observed biweekly throughout this developmental period during 10 min laboratory free-play sessions we tracked the range of postures mothers and infants produced (e.g. we assessed the type of interactions they naturally engaged in (no interactions they engaged mainly in fine motor manipulations of targets and often maintained their activity on the same target their rate of fine motor manipulation declined during sitting but increased while kneeling/squatting their interactions with targets became more passive but they also engaged in greater gross motor activity while continuing to use squatting/kneeling postures for fine motor manipulations The walking period was also marked by an increase in target changes and more frequent posture changes during object interactions mothers produced mainly no or passive activity during sitting infants used their body in increasingly varied ways to explore and interact with their environment progression in posture variations significantly altered how infants manually interacted with their surrounding world Infants’ motor and interactive behaviors also often occur in an environment attended by their caregiver (e.g., Campos et al., 2000; Bigelow et al., 2004; Lobo and Galloway, 2012; Karasik et al., 2014; Fukuyama et al., 2015) The interactive activities that mother and child each produce in the environment may change as infants acquire new motor skills Little research has described the posture and physical interaction patterns that mother and child display in free-play activities over the first 2 years of life This study aims to capture how infants and their mothers use their bodies to manipulate targets in a playroom as the infants transition from sitting research has shown that postural progression and postural control can modulate infant’s experiences with objects these posture-specific working spaces not only change depending on the posture adopted but also may affect object interactions at any given moment we examine more closely how infants’ expanding repertoire of postural skills as they acquire locomotor skills affects their manipulatory behaviors and interactive activities with objects in their surroundings Prior research has provided single snapshots of infants’ interactive behaviors at certain developmental times we track how infant interactive behaviors reorganize as they progress from sitting through walking we also document mothers’ posture and interactive behaviors as their infants acquire new motor milestones the emergence of self-produced locomotion brings many changes in infants’ patterns of interactions with objects and target-directed behaviors It remains unclear whether mothers’ physical interactive behaviors also change as their infants acquire new locomotor skills This study is an extension of a previous report (Thurman and Corbetta, 2017) using the same longitudinal dataset we delineated patterns of mother-infant spatial exploration the number of object interaction bouts and posture changes displayed and the proportion of time intervals infants and mothers spent in certain postures during free play infants increased their interactive behaviors and spread their exploration of the room more widely than their mothers These trends in spatial exploration were highly correlated with the number of posture changes infants and mothers performed but interactive behavior and posture changes were positively correlated only in the infants This seemed to suggest that infants used their postures for movement and discovery whereas mothers seemed to play a more supportive role we aim to further address how the postures adopted in the moment affected the type of interactive behaviors performed on objects in the room We also wanted to capture how frequently infants transitioned between targets and whether infants changed their postures during target transitions during the session and as they progressed through developmental time Active exploration of one’s surroundings is not limited to manipulating objects with the hands or traveling to different locations It may also entail shifting posture while interacting with objects or furniture in the surrounding using the body as a whole provides new opportunities for interaction and discovery and learn about objects in the environment we should find greater postural diversity when infants are engaging in targeted behaviors compared to non-targeted behaviors We tracked interactive and postural activities in 13 infants and their mothers as the infants acquired crawling and walking skills spanning several months across the first 2 years of life allowed us to investigate natural changes in these behaviors in both infants and mothers to determine how they occurred in a less controlled environment to address how physical interactive activities reorganized as infants developed expanding postural forms over time do infants and mothers alike shift interactive behaviors as infants acquire locomotion Do interactive behaviors depend on the posture performed in the moment do transitions between targets occur while maintaining or changing posture we expected that infants would demonstrate more fine motor manipulations of objects while sitting Given their limited range of postural skills their posture would not differ greatly between moments of interactions with targets and moments of no interactions they would do so while maintaining the same posture Crawling infants also have more postural options available These postural options may be more widely used when engaged with targets or they may be used when transitioning from one target to another as infants have gained more postural experience and stability in squatting/kneeling postures we expect that they may rely less on sitting postures for fine and gross motor activities but increase their reliance on squatting/kneeling postures for these interactive behaviors as infants now spend more time standing upright they may display more passive involvement with objects when in that posture as this newly acquired and unpracticed posture places more demands on balance infants may begin to show an even wider range of postures when interacting with targets compared to when they are not interacting with targets We also expect continued shifts in posture during transitions from one target to another We anticipate that mothers will not display significant changes in their use of postures for interaction over time as their infants gain more autonomy and become able to transition between targets more independently mothers may take a more laid-back role with a decrease in interactive behaviors Number of sessions contributed by each dyad during the whole study All participants were recruited from a human subject database maintained by the Child Development Research Group at the University of Tennessee We sent invitations for participation by mail when infants were around 5 months old Interested families were invited to attend a non-committal informational session in our laboratory before deciding to participate Thirteen out of 14 families who attended the information session decided to be a part of the study and signed informed consent forms All infants were healthy throughout the duration of the study and were free of physical impairments and over half fell into categories consistent with middle socioeconomic status (e.g. a photo book with photographs and milestones from each session the room contained at all times between 28 and 29 possible targets (this includes the furniture and flooring; sometimes the mothers used their own items) 23 (82%) were always present in the room for the duration of the entire study Five objects better suited for younger infants were switched out at some point during the study depending on infants’ locomotor skill progression the sit-on rocking horse was replaced with the rolling melody push toy) Synchronized camera views of laboratory free play space during a mother and infant free-play interaction and the length of time they were available in the playroom Sessions were recorded with two Canon Vixia HFR32 digital video cameras that were positioned on opposite sides of the room the two camera views captured all activity in the room Touwen’s Group III Neurological scale is an infant assessment technique designed for the evaluation of posture, muscle tone regulation, reflexes and reactions, trunk coordination, and fine and gross motor coordination (Touwen, 1976). The technique has good reliability and validity assessment scores and takes about 15 min to administer (Heineman and Hadders-Algra, 2008; Hadders-Algra et al., 2010) The assessment was administered at the end of each session in the presence of the parents objects were positioned in consistent locations in the room (e.g. the sit-on pushcart was always placed on the floor in the bend of the stairs) but all objects could all be moved freely around the room by the participants except for the furniture dyads were given time to settle into the laboratory space An experimenter turned on both cameras and bounced a small rubber ball in the center of the room to provide an event that could be easily identified in both recordings for later video synchronization which were randomized across sessions and dyads mothers were given a problem-solving toy (e.g. Another condition involved a startle toy (e.g. Only data from the free-play session is included in the current report mothers were asked to play with their infants as they normally would An experimenter monitored each session from an adjacent location that was not visible to the participants only 14 were paused at the mother’s request for diaper changes until the mother indicated that the session could resume Session recordings from both video cameras were imported into The Observer XT and synchronized for behavioral coding (see Figure 1 for view from both cameras) We used a time sampling of 15 s intervals to capture general trends in these behaviors over the first 2 years At each 15 s interval across the 10 min free-play session we coded infants’ and mothers’ postures and the types of physical interactive behaviors they produced with targets To provide coders with sufficient information to accurately code behaviors we used 2 s of video prior to each 15 s interval to interpret the behavior (e.g. behaviors occurring between 6:58.0 and 7:00.0 would be examined for coding the interval at 7:00.0 The total corpus corresponded to 41 h of video recordings and 9,880 15 s intervals of free play We adapted the posture coding scheme used by Thurman and Corbetta (2017) This coding scheme delineates nine posture categories from a range of positions and movements Posture categories were as follows: being repositioned The posture displayed at each 15 s interval in the session was coded If the participants’ body was not fully visible during an interval that interval was excluded from the analyses but this represented on average less than 1% of the overall percentage of infants’ intervals (Mean = 0.92% We considered whether participants were directly and actively engaging/interacting with a target in a physical way (meaning they were in direct contact with the target) Instances when participants were not contacting a target were coded as “nothing” (e.g. an infant simply sitting on the floor and looking at the mother) We derived a few variables from this coding we counted how many intervals in each session participants physically interacted with a target vs we derived the proportion of intervals that participants spent in targeted vs We also derived information about how targets changed across successive intervals We classified five types of target transitions Target-to-same-target transitions occurred when participants continued to interact with one target from one interval to the next (e.g. climbing the stairs in one interval to pulling up on the stairs in the next interval) Target-to-new-target transitions occurred when participants switched from one target to a different target from one interval to the next (e.g. Target-to-nothing transitions occurred when participants engaged with a target in one interval Nothing-to-target transitions occurred when participants went from not interacting with a target in one interval to engaging with a target in the following interval (e.g. we coded nothing-to-nothing transitions if participants went from one interval to the next and did not interact with a target in either interval (e.g. We counted how many times each of the five target transitions occurred in each session then normalized the counts out of the total number of interval-to-interval transitions possible in each session we also derived whether infants simultaneously changed or maintained their postures during target transitions and standing postures corresponded to each category of interactive behavior and then derived the proportion of intervals participants engaged in each type of interactive behavior while in each of those postures Pairs of trained coders independently coded between 20 and 23% of the data depending on the analyses Video segments were selected randomly throughout the entire developmental period and across dyads Kappa’s agreements (and interrater correlations) were 0.73 (r = 0.91) for posture and 0.84 (r = 0.74) for interactive behaviors Kappa’s agreements (and interrater correlations) for these codes were 0.89 (r = 0.81) Disagreements on these reliability sessions were resolved through discussion Infants in our study learned to crawl and walk at different times and therefore were followed for different lengths of time. To structure our analyses, we included data from 5 sessions prior to crawling onset up to 5 sessions following walking onset (see Table 1) we used Pearson correlations on each infant’s and mother’s data over this entire period from sitting to walking to test developmental trends independent of the number of sessions each infant received Pearson was chosen because it fits a linear trend on the data points while maintaining the developmental order of the sessions (Spearman ranks orders the data hence potentially altering the developmental order) The individual correlation values obtained were then used with the non-parametric Friedman test to compare general developmental trends between variables If the Friedman test yielded significant differences (p 2-tailed) we performed Wilcoxon tests (p 2-tailed) to determine where the differences lied We further analyzed the developmental changes in infants’ and mothers’ interaction patterns around the onset of hands-and-knees crawling and upright locomotion by running Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) with a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons on segments of data covering 5 sessions prior and 5 sessions following the onsets of those locomotor skills GEEs are particularly adequate for longitudinal data because they take into account the dependency and ordering of the data within subjects in repeated measures GEEs assessed differences between mothers and infants determined which behaviors were produced significantly more and whether they changed as a function of sessions Because infants had between 6 and 9 crawling sessions before walking onset some sessions were used for the computation of the 5 post-crawling sessions and for the 5 pre-walking sessions we did not run statistical tests to assess changes between post-crawling and pre-walking sessions Infants sat independently at an average of 6.6 months (SD = 0.6), crawled on all fours at 8.8 months (SD = 1.4), stood independently at 11.2 months (SD = 1.2), and walked at least seven paces at 12.4 months (SD = 1.6). Four infants could sit independently for at least 30 s at their first session in the study, and one infant (ID#8, Table 1) crawled on all fours We first examined to which extent infants’ and mothers’ each engaged in target-directed behaviors A GEE on the percent of intervals in targeted behavior around the crawling period infants) and session (10) as predictors revealed a main effect of dyad infants engaged in targeted behaviors significantly more (79.47%) than their mothers [60.64% infants’ targeted behaviors increased up to 85.02% while mothers only increased to 63.30% [Wald χ2(9) = 18.349 the GEE analysis using the same predictors infants displayed on average a higher percentage of targeted behaviors (85.37%) than their mothers [56.69% infants’ targeted behaviors increased on average from 80.99 to 85.33% while mothers’ decreased from 63.87 to 56.60% [Wald χ2(9) = 23.885 infants displayed more varied posture configurations during intervals of targeted (3.02) than untargeted behavior [2.39 the number of posture configurations displayed increased significantly over the 10 sessions [Wald χ2(9) = 40.497 Mean numbers and standard errors of posture configurations displayed by infants over the 10 sessions surrounding the crawling (left) and walking (right) transitions as function of targeted engagement the GEE with the same predictors revealed a main effect of behavior infants displayed an average of 5.46 different postures configurations during intervals of targeted behavior compared to 3.20 in untargeted ones [Wald χ2(1) = 60.231 The different types of posture infants displayed during each 10-session period surrounding the onset of crawling and walking are reported in Figure 3 by targeted behavior The colors correspond to the number of infants that displayed each of the postures listed by session This figure illustrates that between the first and second 10-session period increasingly more infants diversified the range of postures they used to interact with their environment but they did so mainly while actively engaging with targets Heat maps representing the number of infants who displayed a given posture during a given session when engaging in untargeted (top) vs targeted (bottom) behavior around the transition to crawling (left) and walking (right) Lighter colors indicate that fewer infants displayed a given posture To verify whether posture diversity related to the frequency of targeted behaviors, we ran Pearson correlations on each infants’ data, pairing their number of posture configurations with their number of targeted behaviors by session (infants provided between 12 and 19 sessions for each correlation, see Table 1). All correlations were positive (see Figure 4) Nine out of the 13 infants’ correlations were significant above the 0.05 level (range: r = 0.284 so did the frequency of targeted behaviors Pearson correlations and corresponding regression lines for each of the 13 infants fitting the relation between the number of posture categories and frequency of targeted behaviors they displayed at each session Each symbol type represents a different infant Note that several symbols can line up over a same number of postural configurations This occurs when infants produce identical numbers of postural configurations across several sessions each with a different number of targeted interactions Did interactive behaviors change as infants transitioned from sitting to walking and developed new postural forms We focused on three postures most commonly produced (sitting and standing) and examined the types of interactive behaviors infants and mothers each produced when in those postures within and across sessions Sitting was the only posture performed throughout the entire study We first ran an analysis on the entire data span to test the overall developmental trends we ran analyses by 10-session periods to focus more closely on the changes occurring around the crawling and walking transitions Figure 5 displays the developmental trends for four types of interactive behaviors while infants and mothers were in sitting postures Each regression line from the Pearson’s correlations corresponds to each of the 13 infant or mother Friedman tests comparing the correlation values of those trend lines by interactive behavior for the infants and mothers separately revealed significant differences [infants: χ2(3) = 21.277 p < 0.0001; mothers: χ2(3) = 8.723 the near zero correlations for no activity (mean r = -0.093) were significantly different from both the negative correlations in fine motor manipulation (mean r = -0.469; Z = -2.900 and the positive correlations in gross motor activity (mean r = 0.316; Z = -2.760 The negative correlations in fine motor manipulation were also significantly different from both the positive correlations in passive/minimal involvement (Z = -2.830 infants decreased the proportion of intervals they engaged in fine motor manipulation they increased intervals in passive/minimal involvement and gross motor activity while intervals in no activity remained about the same Pearson correlations and corresponding regression lines showing the overall developmental trends for all 13 dyads (infants top mothers bottom) for the proportion of intervals spent engaging in each type of interactive behavior (left to right: no activity Regression lines for each participant fit the proportion of intervals of a given interactive behavior from 5 sessions before crawling onset Light gray and darker gray shaded areas span the range of session numbers during which different infants learned to crawl and walk differences in correlation trends for interactive behaviors during sitting intervals were significant only between fine motor manipulations (mean r = -0.271) and both no activity (mean r = 0.255; Z = -2.341 p < 0.019) and gross motor activity (mean r = 0.030; Z = -2.132 Mothers also displayed a decline in fine motor manipulations over developmental time while increasing no activity and maintaining gross motor activity and session as predictors allowed us to assess more finely differences between the interactive behaviors displayed during sitting intervals and capture infants/mothers differences at those transition times Because our data were normalized within postures we focused on the three interactive behaviors that displayed the largest developmental changes over the 10-session period as our first selection criterion we used the mostly represented behavior as our second criterion based on the combined data from the infants and mothers During the transition to crawling (Figure 6 a GEE ran on the percent intervals of interactive behaviors performed in sitting using dyad (infant vs and no activity) and session as predictors revealed a significant main effect of interactive behavior [Wald χ2(2) = 69.594 the average proportion of intervals of gross motor activity while in sitting was significantly lower (13.58%) than for no activity (29.60%) and fine manipulation (30.55% A dyad × interactive behavior interaction [Wald χ2(2) = 108.658 p < 0.0001] indicated that the infants used on average 40.89% of their sitting intervals engaging in fine motor manipulations while the mothers used an average of 42.35% of their sitting intervals in no activity an interactive behavior × session interaction [Wald χ2(18) = 69.384 p < 0.0001] revealed that intervals of fine motor manipulation while in sitting decreased over this 10-session period while intervals of gross motor activity increased during this same period a 3-way significant interaction of dyad × interactive behavior × session [Wald χ2(18) = 36.421 p < 0.006] indicated that the observed decline in fine motor manipulation and increase in gross motor activity while sitting were more pronounced for the infants than for their mothers Mean proportions and standard errors of infants’ and mothers’ interactive behaviors by posture by session number across the transition to crawling and walking The vertical lines on the graphs indicate the onsets of crawling and walking The lines that are grayed out were not entered in the GEE analyses but are still plotted for illustration purposes and passive engagement as the three selected interactive behaviors revealed again a significant main effect of interactive behaviors [Wald χ2(2) = 31.865 a dyad × interactive behavior interaction [Wald χ2(2) = 143.834 an interactive behavior × session interaction [Wald χ2(18) = 39.030 and a dyad × interactive behavior × session interaction [Wald χ2(18) = 52.345 Pairwise comparisons indicated that during this period the average proportion of intervals of fine motor manipulation had now become overall significantly lower (19.84%) than the average proportion of intervals of no activity in sitting (33.02%) and passive involvement (27.79% differed greatly in their respective distribution of interactive activities Mothers continued to spend on average a high percentage of their sitting intervals in no activity (51.64%) while infants only spent 14.38% in no activity (p < 0.0001) used most of their sitting intervals for passive involvement (33.48%) and much less performing fine motor manipulations (24.41%) compared to the previous crawling period the significant interactive behavior × session interaction over this walking transition revealed that infants continued to decrease their rate of fine motor manipulation during sitting intervals over the 10-session period while they increased their rate of passive involvement Mothers further increased their rate of no activity while decreasing their rate of passive involvement during sitting intervals infants’ fine motor manipulation – which was their most frequent activity during sitting intervals – declined progressively while their gross motor activity increased infants’ fine motor manipulations during sitting intervals further declined but now intervals of passive involvement increased performed mainly no activity throughout the study period they decreased their rate of intervals of all other forms activities Kneeling and squatting postures began to appear in the behavioral repertoire of the infants after they began to crawl, thus we examined manipulations in those postures only around the transition to walking (see Figure 6 GEE analyses on the interval percentage of interactive behaviors performed in kneeling/squatting using dyad (infant vs and sessions as predictors revealed a main effect of interactive behaviors [Wald χ2(2) = 34.257 infants and mothers on average engaged more in passive/minimal involvement (34.68%) than fine motor manipulation (26.37%) and no activity (19.06% a dyad × interactive behavior interaction [Wald χ2(2) = 88.959 p < 0.0001] revealed that infants performed on average more fine motor manipulation (40.31%) and passive involvement (33.38%) than no activity (7.94%) engaged on average more in no activity (30.18%) and passive involvement (35.97%) A 3-way dyad × interactive behavior × session interaction [Wald χ2(18) = 31.718 p < 0.024] further identified that while infants’ kneeling/squatting intervals showed a decrease in passive involvement and increase in fine motor manipulation during the transition to walking mothers displayed an increase in passive involvement infants’ fine motor manipulations occurred mainly during kneeling/squatting intervals Mothers continued to maintain a relatively high level of no activity or minimal/passive involvement even when in kneeling/squatting Around the transition to walking, infants also learned to stand (Figure 6 A GEE analysis on the percent intervals of interactive behaviors performed in standing using dyad (infant vs interactive behaviors (passive involvement and sessions as predictors revealed again a main effect of interactive behaviors [Wald χ2(2) = 101.988 The proportion of intervals of passive interactions during standing were on average higher (46.36%) than those for fine motor manipulation (14.85%) and gross motor activity (23.73%; all ps < 0.0001) a dyad × interactive behavior [Wald χ2(2) = 9.147 p < 0.010] revealed that while both mothers and infants produced on average high rates of passive behaviors during standing intervals (mothers = 42.52%; infants = 50.20%) they differed in their rates of fine motor manipulations Infants produced on average 21.63% of fine motor manipulations intervals compared to 8.07% for the mothers (p < 0.043) a 3-way dyad × interactive behavior × session interaction [Wald χ2(18) = 46.669 p < 0.0001] indicated in infants a decrease in passive involvement and an increase in gross motor activity during standing while no clear developmental trend reflected changes in the mothers’ interactive behaviors over those 10 sessions these results suggest that passive involvement with targets mainly performed during standing intervals around the transition to walking decreased over the sessions as gross motor activities increased Pearson correlations and corresponding regression lines showing the relation between the proportions that infants (top) and mothers (bottom) engaged in transitions from target-to-same-target Trend lines for each participant show the direction of the relation Friedman tests comparing the correlation values of those trend lines between target transition types and sessions revealed significant differences for the infants [χ2(4) = 29.846 but none for the mothers [χ2(4) = 4.862 Infants had positive correlations for target-to-new-target (mean r = 0.697) that were significantly different from the negative or near zero correlations of all other target transition categories (all ps < 0.001) infants not only increased their bouts of interactions but they also increasingly transitioned to new targets between consecutive time intervals while all other target transition types either declined or remained about the same over time The mothers did not reveal significant changes in target transitions over the duration of the study Since little developmental variations were found for the target-to-nothing and nothing-to-target transitions, we ran the GEE analyses using dyad (mother vs. infants), target transition type, and session as predictors only on the three categories of target transitions showing developmental change (i.e., target-to-same-target, target-to-new-target, and nothing-to-nothing, see Figure 8) the GEE revealed a main effect of target transition type [Wald χ2(2) = 249.354 The proportion of successive time intervals in which mothers and infants interacted with the same target was on average significantly higher (41.63%) than the two other target transition types (15.62 and 16.61% a significant dyad × transition type interaction [Wald χ2(2) = 179.799 p < 01.0001] indicated that this effect was mainly driven by the infants infants interacted with the same target across successive time intervals significantly more (57.71%) than they transitioned to new targets (11.96%) or from nothing-to-nothing (9.37% The GEE also reported a target transition × session interaction [Wald χ2(18) = 42.318 and a dyad × target transition × session interaction [Wald χ2(18) = 38.112 Infants’ proportion of successive intervals interacting with the same target declined over this crawling transition period while the proportion of transitions to new targets increased mothers did not reveal much changes over time Mean proportions and standard errors of infants’ (top) and mothers’ (bottom) target transitions by type and by session number The graphs represent the 10-session transition around crawling (left) and walking (right) with vertical lines indicating the onsets of crawling and walking A GEE analysis on percent intervals of target transitions using the same predictors and the same target transition types over the transition to walking revealed similar trends (Figure 8) Main effects of dyad [Wald χ2(1) = 12.618 p < 0.0001] and target transition type [Wald χ2(2) = 163.543 and a significant dyad × target transition type interaction [Wald χ2(4) = 459.489 p < 0.0001] indicated that the target-to-same-target transitions still occurred on average more frequently over successive time intervals than the other two target transition types (34.83% compared to 23.45 this was again mainly the case for the infants who produced on average 49.83% of target-to-same-target transitions compared to 26.15% target-to-new-target transitions and 3.93% of nothing-to-nothing transitions (all ps < 0.0001) Mothers did not demonstrate significant differences between target transition types infants produced many target-to-same or target-to-new-target transitions over the observed developmental period compared to their mothers and produced very few target-to-nothing or nothing-to-nothing transitions over successive time intervals infants gradually decreased their rate of target-to-same-target transitions and increased their rate of target-to-new-target transitions suggesting that with the acquisition of mobility infants explored their environment more widely and interacted with more targets Mothers did not show much change in their target transitions over time; neither did they display a predominant type of target transition Given that infants were the only ones showing high transitions between same and new targets, we also examined, for the infants only, whether these two types of target transitions corresponded to a change or maintenance of posture over the same successive time intervals. Figure 9 displays regression lines from Pearson’s correlations for each of the 13 infants indicating the developmental trends for maintaining posture vs changing posture during target-to-same-target transitions and target-to-new-target transitions The Friedman test on the obtained correlation coefficients revealed that the developmental trends for those four case scenarios were significantly different [χ2(3) = 31.985 In target-to-same-target transition intervals posture maintenance declined over time (mean r = -0.551) posture changes increased (mean r = 0.594 For the intervals of target-to-new-target transitions posture maintenance did not change over time (mean r = 0.098) but posture changes also increased (mean r = 0.691 Pearson correlations and corresponding regression lines showing the relation between the proportion of transitions infants engaged in transitions from target-to-same-target (top) and target-to-new-target (bottom) while also maintaining (left) or changing posture (right) A GEE on these percentage intervals of posture/target changes using the type of target transition with type of posture change and session as predictors around the emergence of crawling (Figure 10) revealed a main effect of posture change/target transition [Wald χ2(3) = 400.703 p < 0.0001] and a significant posture change/target transition × crawling session interaction [Wald χ2(27) = 89.543 Posture maintenance during target-to-same-target transition was the behavior most highly performed by the infants (45.73%) and was on average significantly different from all three other posture/target transition combinations (range = 5.75–9.19% the interaction indicated that posture maintenance during target-to-same-target transitions declined significantly over the 10-session crawling period (ps from session 7 < 0.003) posture maintenance and posture change did not occur much over this crawling period and represented less than 20% of the successive intervals Mean proportions and standard errors of infants’ target-to-same-target (top) and target-to-new-target (bottom) transitions as a function of corresponding posture transitions by session number The graphs represent the 10-session transition to crawling (left) and walking (right) with the vertical lines indicating the onsets of crawling and walking A GEE on this same variable using the same predictors over the walking transition period (Figure 10) only returned a main effect of posture change/target transition [Wald χ2(3) = 99.12 The interaction with sessions of walking did not reach significance [Wald χ2(27) = 38.555 Posture maintenance during same-target interval transitions was again on average more represented (26.96%) than the other posture change/target transition combinations (7.18 corresponding to the transition to crawling presented the greatest developmental change in posture during target transitions Change in posture increased whereas posture maintenance declined and investigated how mothers and infants adopted various postures during play how they used postures to interact with targets in their environment and how infants’ repertoire of postural skills expanded over the course of locomotor development infants broadened postural diversity and interactive behaviors during object interaction as they gained locomotor skills over time they also reorganized the way they used prior occurring postures to manipulate their environment sitting which was mostly used for fine motor manipulation during the crawling transition period started to be used increasingly more for passive holding during the walking transition period kneeling/squatting became the preferred postures for fine motor manipulation infants engaged in targeted behavior most of the time and interacted with the same target from interval to interval more frequently than they changed to a new target They also tended to maintain the same posture when attending to the same target across intervals despite developing a growing range of postures Mothers on the other hand remained passive or minimally engaged most of the time even though they had the freedom to move about the room and interact with their infants infants’ bodies seemed to become tools for exploration allowing for a growing diversification of their behavior and interactions with their surroundings interspersed with moments of posture maintenance with a same target Mothers spent much less time interacting with targets compared to their infants, and this did not change very much longitudinally as their infants acquired locomotor skills. This finding may be consistent with prior work in home settings, which has shown that mothers tend to respond similarly to their infants over time (e.g., Masur and Turner, 2001), and mothers often arrange play spaces for self-initiated infant play (Pierce, 2000) Sitting and kneeling/squatting occurring during the later developmental period that gave rise to more passive involvement may at that point have become more transitional postures (than standing postures) Infants can adopt those postures for short moments on their way to their next object destination A more in-depth examination of these data in future studies will allow us to address these questions more readily they are using the surface contact as source of postural stabilization but also as a way to explore their own developing postural coordination which was seldom represented in the early period progressively increased during the later kneeling/squatting and standing postures future research could investigate more closely how infants learn to control their bodies and postures in relation to acting on their environments over time This is a question we are planning to examine in future analyses They investigated whether bouts of infant walking ended with infants making contact with toys They found that when infants ended a bout of walking they most often stopped in the middle of the floor and many interactions with objects occurred after infants were already in motion They concluded that infant’s behavior is not goal-directed in the sense that an infant may see a goal in the distance and then travel to it they happen upon opportunities for interaction along the way and while already in motion which considered all infant postures and movements and not just those that occurred in bouts of walking similarly suggest that infants’ behaviors are highly target-directed we did find particularly in the later period that infants increasingly involve their whole bodies when interacting with objects changing body posture when remaining with similar targets or switching to new ones can reduce the range of opportunities for interaction that infants possess Our observations were done in a free-play session where there were no instructions as to which toys participants should choose in their activities in order to provide developmentally appropriate toys for participants we occasionally changed out a small number of objects as infants progressed through motor skills This may have affected the likelihood that infants would have engaged in particular interactive behaviors in a given session it was our intent to capture variations in behaviors in our free-play format Varied opportunities for interactions could occur at each session whether the objects in the room were identical or not We are confident that our findings are unaffected by the small variations in toy selection at any session as 68% of infants’ target interactions were with items that remained in the room throughout the whole study The current study utilized an extensive longitudinal approach to investigate infants’ and mothers’ use of posture for playful interaction with their environments both within sessions and across infant locomotor development We discovered that with locomotor development infants’ interactions in their environments changed depending on which postures they adopted in the moment and how they used their postures to transition between targets remained largely inactive and did not alter significantly patterns of interactions as their infants did Our approach provided evidence to further support the notion that infants’ use of posture is a dynamic and essential part of their action repertoire during exploration Our observations were limited to 15 s interval time sampling over just 10 min free-play sessions While one could argue that this is not sufficient to capture these developmental dynamics our observations show that they map logically on expected patterns of development This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the Institutional Review Board at the University of Tennessee - 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This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited *Correspondence: Sabrina L. Thurman, c3RodXJtYW4yQGVsb24uZWR1 revealed on Thursday that he will have to change his residence after the mayor of Corbetta (northern Italy) disclosed on social media that the European champion was finalizing his relocation to the area just outside Milan a municipality located about 30 kilometers from Milan took pride in announcing that a player of Morata’s caliber was moving to the town his post sparked the Spanish player’s anger who stated that he cannot live there due to a lack of privacy and to ensure the safety of his children The Milan forward is completing the paperwork for his move to his new (wonderful) home in our city,” the mayor announced on his Instagram account the mayor mentioned in his announcement that he is a fan of Inter Milan but I am delighted to welcome Álvaro Morata to our great Corbetta family!” he noted Morata did not hold back in responding to the announcement I have nothing of value; the only treasure is my children whose safety has been disturbed by you,” the player wrote on Instagram “I thought the municipality of Corbetta could guarantee me some privacy I am forced to move immediately due to your inability to use social media and protect your citizens,” he added Metrics details This review proposes that two networks of brain areas are involved in controlling attention One network is primarily responsible for applying cognitive top-down selection for stimuli and responses whereas the other detects behaviourally relevant stimuli and might act as a 'circuit breaker' for the first system Humans use cognitive information to direct attention to relevant objects (targets) in a visual scene Information such as the target's colour or location is represented as a 'perceptual set' advance information about the required response to a target is represented as a 'motor set' These can be considered together as an 'attentional set' which aids the detection of and response to targets Such top-down control of attentional processes activates dorsal posterior parietal and frontal regions of the brain bilaterally in both monkeys and humans This dorsal frontoparietal system is responsible for the generation of attentional sets Attention can also be driven by stimulus properties rather than cognitive processes This 'bottom-up' control of attention explains why we find ourselves drawn to 'oddball' stimuli that are very different from the background or to salient stimuli that share some sensory features with the target for which we are searching The dorsal frontoparietal system seems to maintain a 'salience map' that combines bottom-up with top-down information during visual search can attract our attention regardless of the ongoing task This sensory orienting process seems to be mediated by the second attentional network which is mainly lateralized to the right side of the brain and includes the temporoparietal junction and the ventral frontal cortex This network seems to interrupt ongoing cognitive activity when a stimulus that might be behaviourally important is detected These two networks could interact in humans to control attention It is possible that damage to these networks is responsible for the syndrome of neglect in which patients that have suffered damage to the right side of the brain tend to ignore stimuli on the left side of space The authors suggest that neglect results from damage to the ventral network that also 'functionally inactivates' the dorsal network We review evidence for partially segregated networks of brain areas that carry out different attentional functions which includes parts of the intraparietal cortex and superior frontal cortex is involved in preparing and applying goal-directed (top-down) selection for stimuli and responses This system is also modulated by the detection of stimuli which includes the temporoparietal cortex and inferior frontal cortex and is largely lateralized to the right hemisphere this system is specialized for the detection of behaviourally relevant stimuli particularly when they are salient or unexpected This ventral frontoparietal network works as a 'circuit breaker' for the dorsal system Both attentional systems interact during normal vision and both are disrupted in unilateral spatial neglect Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout The extent of processing of noise elements during selective encoding from visual displays Models of stimulus uncertainty in motion perception Searching for conjunctively defined targets Mechanisms of perceptual attention in precuing of location Human movement initiation: specification of arm 428–443 (1988).References 1–7 provide evidence that preparatory attention to stimuli and responses facilitates perception and action Visual attention: insights from brain imaging Mechanisms of visual attention in the human cortex 315–341 (2000).References 8 and 9 review the effects of attention on neural mechanisms in the human visual cortex and discuss the interaction between the frontoparietal network and the visual cortex Voluntary orienting is dissociated from target detection in human posterior parietal cortex 292–297 (2000).Dissociates preparatory goal-directed activity in the IPs for stimulus location from stimulus-driven activity in the TPJ during reorienting to unattended targets Increased activity in human visual cortex during directed attention in the absence of visual stimulation The neural mechanisms of top-down attentional control Neural systems for visual orienting and their relationship with working memory Areas involved in encoding and applying directional expectations to moving objects 9480–9496 (1999).References 11–14 provide neuroimaging evidence that the human dorsal frontoparietal network is involved in preparing and maintaining expectations for stimulus location and motion Functional localization of the system for visuospatial attention using positron emission tomography Attention to one or two features in left and right visual field: a positron emission tomography study Cortical fMRI activation produced by attentive tracking of moving targets The generality of parietal involvement in visual attention A large-scale distributed network for covert spatial attention: further anatomical delineation based on stringent behavioural and cognitive controls The neurology of saccades and covert shifts in spatial attention: an event-related fMRI study Frontoparietal cortical networks for directing attention and the eye to visual locations: identical Mapping visual cortex in monkeys and humans using surface-based atlases Location and function of the human frontal eye-field: a selective review Behavioral enhancement of visual responses in monkey cerebral cortex Modulation in posterior parietal cortex related to selective attention and cognitive activation of single neurons in monkey lateral intraparietal area 2841–2852 (1996).Shows how preparatory signals for visual attention and eye movements are combined in LIP neurons and cognitive activation of single neurons in monkey exstrastriate area V3A Two attentional processes in the parietal lobe Control mechanisms of object-based visual attention in human cortex 4T-fMRI study of nonspatial shifting of selective attention: cerebellar and parietal contributions Neuronal correlates of inferred motion in primate posterior parietal cortex Dynamic coding of behaviourally relevant stimuli in parietal cortex Stimulus-specific mechanisms of visual short-term memory Overlapping mechanisms of attention and spatial working memory 119–126 (2001).Reviews the relationship between spatial working memory and attention Transient and sustained activity in a distributed neural system for human working memory Memory related motor planning activity in posterior parietal cortex of macaque Neuronal activity related to saccadic eye movements in the monkey's dorsolateral prefrontal cortex Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function 167–202 (2001).References 40 and 41 review the role of the prefrontal cortex in attention and executive control Coding of intention in the posterior parietal cortex 167–170 (1997).Presents evidence of different preparatory response mechanisms for eye and arm in the macaque posterior parietal cortex The parietal association cortex in depth perception and visual control of hand action Single neurons discharging before saccades Motor aspects of cue-related neuronal activity in premotor cortex of the rhesus monkey Functional anatomy of reaching and visuomotor learning: a positron emission tomography study Dissociation of saccade-related and pursuit-related activation in human frontal eye fields as revealed by fMRI A comparison of frontoparietal fMRI activation during anti-saccades and anti-pointing The prefrontal cortex: response selection or maintenance within working memory Reorienting attention across the horizontal and vertical meridians: evidence in favor of a premotor theory of attention A common network of functional areas for attention and eye movements Covert visual spatial orienting and saccades: overlapping neural systems Attention systems and the organization of the human parietal cortex in Attention and Performance XV (eds Umilta Costs of a predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks 211–253 (2000).References 55–57 describe psychological processes involved in task switching V.) 373–417 (American Physiological Society Modulation of task-related neural activity in task-switching: an fMRI study The role of prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex in task switching in Attention and Performance X (eds Bouman Reflexive and voluntary orienting of visual attention: time course of activation and resistance to interruption in Attention and Performance XI (eds Posner Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation Involuntary covert orienting is contingent on attentional control settings 1030–1044 (1992).References 68 and 69 discuss cognitive influences on stimulus-driven orienting Guided search 2.0: a revised model of visual search Dissociation of visual discrimination from saccade programming in macaque frontal eye field Effects of similarity and history on neural mechanisms of visual selection The representation of visual salience in monkey parietal cortex 481–484 (1998).References 71–73 show that FEF and LIP neurons are modulated by stimulus salience and task relevance Superior parietal cortex activation during spatial attention shifts and visual feature conjunction Attention mechanisms in visual search — an fMRI study Multiple neural correlates of detection in the human brain Dissociating the neural mechanisms of visual attention in change detection using functional MRI Neural correlates of change detection and change blindness 645–650 (2001).References 76–78 show that attentional search and target detection modulate the dorsal frontoparietal network and the visual cortex Neural mechanisms of visual attention: object-based selection of a region in space Prefrontal activation evoked by infrequent target and novel stimuli in a visual target detection task: an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study A stimulus-driven approach to object identity and location processing in the human brain A multimodal cortical network for the detection of changes in the sensory environment 277–283 (2000).Presents evidence that the ventral frontoparietal network responds to stimulus changes in different sensory modalities Anterior cingulate cortex and response conflict: effects of frequency Anatomic bases of event-related potentials and their relationship to novelty detection in humans The central role of the prefrontal cortex in directing attention to novel events The effect of task relevance on the cortical response to changes in visual and auditory stimuli: an event-related fMRI study Neural mechanisms of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attentional control Responses to rare visual target and distractor stimuli using event-related fMRI Neural sources involved in auditory target detection and novelty processing: an event-related fMRI study Lack of heart rate changes during an attention-demanding task after right hemisphere lesions Neurophysiological evidence for a role of posterior parietal cortex in redirecting visual attention Neuronal responses in area 7a to multiple stimulus displays Responses are suppressed at the cued location Reactivation of networks involved in preparatory states frontal and cingulate contributions to the mental representation and attentional targeting of salient extrapersonal events 1325–1346 (1999).Reviews the pathophysiology and anatomy of unilateral neglect Noradrenergic and serotoninergic innervation of cortical thalamic and tectal visual structures in old and new world monkeys Lateralization of norepinephrine in human thalamus Localization of a human system for sustained attention by positron emission tomography Distinct changes in cortical acetylcholine and noradrenaline efflux during contingent and noncontingent performance of a visual attentional task 4908–4914 (2001).Provides a possible link between activity in ventral frontoparietal networks and noradrenaline projection systems Phasic alerting of neglect patients overcomes their spatial deficit in visual awareness in The Cognitive and Neural Basis of Spatial Neglect (eds Karnath in Neurophysiological and Neuropsychological Aspects of Spatial Neglect (ed Spatial awareness is a function of the temporal not the posterior parietal lobe Visual neglect associated with frontal lobe infarction Measuring visual neglect in acute stroke and predicting its recovery: the visual neglect recovery index Visual scanning training effects on reading-related tasks in acquired brain-damage Effects of parietal injury on covert orienting of attention The spatial distribution of visual attention in hemineglect Motor role of human inferior parietal lobe revealed in unilateral neglect patients in Unilateral Neglect: Clinical and Experimental Studies (eds Robertson Visual orienting and alerting in rhesus monkeys: comparison with humans Computerized mappings of the cerebral cortex: a multiresolution flattening method and a surface-based coordinate system in Visual Attention and Cortical Circuits (eds Braun Download references This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health and The J. S. McDonnell Foundation. We thank M. Kincade, A. Tansy, M. Linenweber, S. Astafiev and G. d'Avossa for scientific collaboration; M. Cowan for figure preparation; C. Stanley for scanning; and L. Snyder for contributing data to figure 4a The flow of information from 'higher' to 'lower' centres conveying knowledge derived from previous experience rather than sensory stimulation Information processing that proceeds in a single direction from sensory input without involving feedback information flowing backwards from 'higher' centres to 'lower' centres An area in the frontal lobe that receives visual inputs and produces movements of the eye A rapid eye movement that brings the point of maximal visual acuity — the fovea — to the image of interest A neurological syndrome (often involving damage to the right parietal cortex) in which patients show a marked deficit in the ability to detect or respond to information in the contralesional field The main supplier of noradrenaline to the brain Reprints and permissions Download citation AC Milan forward Álvaro Morata has expressed his anger after the mayor of the Italian town of Corbetta revealed his new residence there Morata has announced on Instagram he will “move house immediately” saying that his right to privacy in the town of 18,000 residents was violated a town located 20 kilometres away from Milan recently posted on Instagram the news that the Spain captain was a “new fellow citizen of Corbetta.” posted a tweaked photograph of Morata holding an AC Milan jersey with Corbetta’s name on it and wrote: “Champion Alvaro Morata is our new fellow citizen of #Corbetta is completing the paperwork for the official transfer to his new (wonderful) home in our city but I’m pleased to welcome Alvaro #Morata into our big Corbetta family And as Fabrizio Romano would say…ALVARO MORATA MOVES TO CORBETTA who this summer separated from his Italian wife © 2025 Leadership Media Group - All Rights Reserved © 2025 Leadership Media Group - All Rights Reserved. Volume 13 - 2019 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fninf.2019.00053 This article is part of the Research TopicBrain-inspired Machine Learning and Computation for Brain-Behavior AnalysisView all 22 articles Stroke causes behavioral deficits in multiple cognitive domains and there is a growing interest in predicting patient performance from neuroimaging data using machine learning techniques we investigated a deep learning approach based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for predicting the severity of language disorder from 3D lesion images from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a heterogeneous sample of stroke patients CNN performance was compared to that of conventional (shallow) machine learning methods including ridge regression (RR) on the images’ principal components and support vector regression We also devised a hybrid method based on re-using CNN’s high-level features as additional input to the RR model Predictive accuracy of the four different methods was further investigated in relation to the size of the training set and the level of redundancy across lesion images in the dataset which was evaluated in terms of location and topological properties of the lesions The Hybrid model achieved the best performance in most cases thereby suggesting that the high-level features extracted by CNNs are complementary to principal component analysis features and improve the model’s predictive accuracy our analyses indicate that both the size of training data and image redundancy are critical factors in determining the accuracy of a computational model in predicting behavioral outcome from the structural brain imaging data of stroke patients Steps involved in the prediction of behavioral outcome in stroke patients from 3D lesion images Conventional machine learning methods typically rely on data preprocessing and feature selection which are dispensed with in deep convolutional neural networks conventional machine learning methods typically require extraction and selection of image features that represent topological information about the lesion a critical step that is dispensed with in the deep learning approach where the SVR model’s ability to predict language deficit scores on the patients’ sample from the lesion image features was also tested (though with relatively poor fit) Figure 2. Ridge regression method used by Siegel et al. (2016) for predicting behavioral deficits in stroke patients from MRI lesion images we investigated the role of redundancy in the image database that is the similarity between a given test image and the images used to train the model We therefore assessed to what extent these two factors are critical in determining the predictive accuracy of the different machine learning models Two board-certified neurologists reviewed all segmentations 29 of the stroke patients presented with a language deficit We re-implemented the RR method and used its performance as a baseline for assessing the other methods. The pipeline used in the original study (Siegel et al., 2016) is illustrated in Figure 2 Lesion images were first preprocessed using PCA to strongly reduce the high dimensionality of the image space we replicated the PCA preprocessing step using singular value decomposition (SVD) in python using scikit-learn module The first 56 components explained 95% of variance and were retained as input features for RR The latter is a method for modeling the relationship between a scalar dependent variable y (output) and one or more explanatory variables denoted by x (input) RR differs from multiple linear regression because it uses L2-normalization for regularization of model coefficients so that unimportant features are automatically down weighted or eliminated RR in this work was implemented in python (scikit-learn module) using linear least square function as loss function and L2-normalization for regularization Considering a training dataset {(x1 the following function is estimated in SVR for linear regression: by minimizing the so-called regularized risk functional (Vapnik et al., 1997; Vapnik, 1998; Basak et al., 2007) 12||w||2 + C ⋅ Remp[f] The first term 12||w||2 is called the regularization term Minimizing this term will make the function as flat as possible The second term Remp[f] is the empirical error measured by the loss function and C is called the regularization constant which determines tolerated deviations from the loss function we used 𝜖 – insensitive loss function L𝜖: so that if the predicted value is within the tube the loss is zero while if the predicted point is outside the tube the loss is the magnitude of the difference between the predicted value and the radius 𝜖 of the tube Slack variables ξ,ξ∗ are used to deal with infeasible constraints of the optimization problem In this work we only used a radial basis function (RBF) kernel The SVR simulations were based on the libSVM framework implemented in python using sci-kit learn module We trained our model and tested its performance using LOO cross-validation on the full dataset The learning parameters were set to C = 50 and 𝜖 = 0.1 (note that large value of 𝜖 generally gives large errors in the solution) whereas the RBF kernel coefficient γ was set to the reciprocal of the number of input features (i.e. the default value in the SVR implementation) Convolutional neural networks exploit spatially local correlation by enforcing a local connectivity pattern between neurons of adjacent layers CNN performs image classification by discovering low level features (such as edges and curves) and then building up to more abstract representations through a series of convolutional layers A typical CNN architecture consists of at least four different layers namely convolutional layer It pools the activation of the neurons at one layer into a single neuron in the next layer It can use two different pooling methods: max pooling and average pooling Max pooling uses the maximum value from each cluster of neurons at the prior layer Average pooling averages the value from each cluster of neurons at the prior layer In the present work we used max pooling because it can boost signal from small regions of the image space and it is therefore best suited for our dataset which includes very small lesions (in contrast average pooling is more effective in the case of a large and noisy region of interest in the image) The pooling layer operates independently on every depth slice of the input and resizes it spatially It serves two main purposes: (i) the number of parameters or weights is reduced thereby decreasing the computational cost; and (ii) it controls over-fitting In the fully connected layer every neuron is connected to all neurons in another layer output layer neurons provide the prediction of the model The architecture of the CNN used in the present study is depicted in Figure 3 The input layer is fed with a 3D lesion image (size: 61 × 73 × 61) followed by a 3D convolutional layer with four kernels (size: 3 × 3 × 3) ReLU activation function is applied on the convolutional layer and the output of this layer is passed to the pooling layer 3D max pooling (8 × 8 × 8) is applied on the output of the convolutional layer generating feature maps of size (8 × 10 × 8) The large pooling stride is motivated by the fact the size of the lesion is typically small and most of the image space is therefore occupied by zero values activations are passed to the fully connected layer consisting of 500 neurons with ReLU activation function The output layer is made by a single neuron with sigmoid activation function which represents the language score of the corresponding patient This allows us to map the entire lesion image into a single (predicted) behavioral score Architecture of the deep convolutional neural network (CNN) the CNN implementation employed here can be described as follows Consider a 3D MRI image x ∈ℜH ×W × D with H × W × D elements (height D represents the number of slices in the MRI image Suppose we are considering the lth layer of a CNN whose inputs form an order three tensor xl with xl ∈ℜHl × Wl × Dl dl) refers to one element in xl which is in the dlth slice at spatial location (il In the convolutional layer multiple kernels are used Assuming D kernels are used and each kernel is of spatial span H × W f is an order four tensor ℜH×W×Dl×D we use indexed variables 0 ≤i < H and 0 ≤d < D to pinpoint a specific element in the kernel The basic flow of the CNN structure is represented by the following equation: The above equation illustrates how a CNN runs layer by layer in a forward pass The input x1 goes through the processing in the first layer We denote the weights involved in the first layer’s processing collectively as a tensor w1 which also acts as an input to the next processing layer All CNN models used in this work were implemented in Tensorflow and were trained on GPUs using the Adam optimizer (Kingma and Ba, 2014; Abadi et al., 2015) Mean square error was used as loss function for training All models were trained and tested using a LOOCV loop which was also used to tune the hyperparameters We also assessed whether the features learned by the CNN at the top hidden layer provide information that is not captured by the PCA preprocessing used in the RR model we trained a RR model where the features (neuron activations) encoded in the fully connected hidden layer of the CNN were added to the PCA-based features as input to the model Machine learning algorithms capture structure in the data that needs to be generalized in order to make predictions from new data the presence of similar data instances in the dataset is required for such models to work these similarities must be defined in the most general manner to be effective on unseen examples Trained models are obviously biased toward the kind of examples they have seen during training and images that have more similar examples in the data (redundancy) yield more accurate predictions defined in terms of similarity (or distance metrics) would affect the predictive accuracy of the models We defined three types of image-image distances for all pairs as follows: Distance between two images was simply computed in terms of the Euclidean distance between the centroids of the lesions This index is complementary to lesion-centroid and goes beyond the centroid comparison The images are first centered at their lesion centroids and then images are cropped as per the larger lesion size then every pair of voxels is compared in the transformed pair of images using Euclidean distance The differences in voxel-wise comparisons is a measure of how the lesions differ in terms of topology irrespective of their centroid positions Since all MRI lesion images are aligned in a common reference frame their unbiased topological differences can be measured by voxel to voxel signal differences Direct comparison between images will also implicitly capture the location information as similar topologies at different locations will be computed as distant We therefore computed the Euclidean distance between each pairs of images For each measure of distance between a pair of images a redundancy score (for each of the above definitions) was assigned to individual images Since the models have been trained in a leave one out manner the number of times an image occurs in similar pairs of images at a given threshold informs us about how much of training data is redundant with this image A threshold was chosen as follows: in the full distance matrix the number of column values lower than the (mean-SD) in the row is treated as the redundancy for the image label in that row Row-wise thresholding was found to be more suitable as it not only represents the redundancy of the image but also it implicitly computes the range of distances of an image with all the others After computing the redundancy of every image with reference to the rest of the data set two groups of images with high and low redundancy were created and model performance was compared between them Performance of the models was measured using the square of the Pearson correlation coefficient between actual and predicted scores (Siegel et al., 2016) the absolute difference between predicted and actual score) is also reported in some of the analyses The results presented below are divided into four sub-sections We first look at the predictive accuracy of the different models/approaches We then investigate how performance is affected by sample size and redundancy in the training dataset we assess the model on prediction of chronic cognitive deficit as measured 3 months after the stroke Multiple models were trained and tested on the dataset as described in the section “Materials and Methods” using LOO cross-validation (as in Siegel et al., 2016). Results for the four different approaches are shown in Figure 4 All models explained more than 60% of the variance and rank them according to the r2 values (in parentheses) produced the following order: Hybrid Model (0.675) the SVR model performed significantly better than CNN (p = 0.0402 two-tailed) in the comparison of r2 values it appears that deep learning did not lead to performance gains when evaluated against the two conventional trained with composite features from PCA and CNN (the latter corresponding to neuron activations in the fully connected hidden layer) outperformed all other methods (p = 0.0001 These observations suggest that for the current dataset which includes a relatively small number of samples A linear method like RR is therefore the most powerful when exploiting the rich set of features derived from both PCA and CNN learning on the lesion images We will return to the issue of dataset size in the next section Language scores predicted by the four competing models: (A) Hybrid model that is on the subgroup of patients (N = 29) who showed language deficit (score < 0) We found that the scores in the deficit range are better predicted by CNN than PCA + RR (p = 0.0425 These results suggest that the CNN model is better tuned to the fine-grained quantitative prediction of the severity of deficit and help in explaining why CNN features boost the overall performance of the Hybrid model we also evaluated the models’ predictions on the subgroup of patients showing no language deficit (scores ≥ 0) Performance was very poor across models (all r2 values < 0.05) This is to be expected because individual differences within the range of unimpaired performance are independent of the nature of the lesions Individual variability is expected also in the absence of lesions and it is obvious that it cannot be mapped onto a lesion image in the current framework CNNs appear to extract useful high-level features that capture the association between 3D lesion images and language deficit scores Comparison of models’ predictive accuracy on selected subsets of patients: (A) patients with left hemisphere lesions (N = 57) that is the population in which a language deficit is most common after stroke and (B) patients with language deficit (N = 29) as attested by a score < 0 Notched box plot showing the prediction performance (R2) on 40 runs for each sample size and method At the smaller sample sizes the performance levels of CNN or Hybrid models are either poorer or statistically similar to that of SVR and PCA-RR models (overlapping notches of the boxplot) at sample size of 90 the Hybrid model outperformed all other models The inset plots the CNN performance gap (difference in R2 values) with increasing sample size in comparison to the SVR model; the best fitting function (red line) is extrapolated up to a sample size of 150 This analysis provides insights into the lesion-predicted language deficits as follows Average prediction performance for images having large vs Performance is measured by both goodness of fit (r2) (A–C) and mean absolute error (MAE) (D–F) almost all models perform very similarly in the image set in which redundancies are high (right-sided bars in all panels) the Hybrid model comprehensively outperformed all other models except in the location + topology based similarity Values in the brackets of x-axis labels represent the number of images included in small and large redundancy groups All models show marked differences in predictive accuracy on the high vs The models perform very similarly in the image set in which redundancies are high a model which has previously seen similar examples during training is much more accurate in prediction This is consistent with the large data set requirements that were found to be critical for developing robust models as discussed in the previous section except when redundancy was defined using location + topology similarity The finding that the Hybrid model performs better on images with limited redundancy is consistent with the idea that the lesion features extracted by the CNN are useful for prediction and complementary to those extracted by the PCA method In the case of redundancy being defined by the location + topology similarity between images, performance on the low redundancy set was lower for the Hybrid model compared to the other models (Figures 7B,E) This suggests that the PCA and CNN features model contrasting properties in this comparison when redundancy is completely eliminated and strictly non-redundant samples are left for training We suggest that suboptimal models trained by CNN and PCA are independent of each other due to multiple and distinct sub-optimal solutions with similar performance in a high dimensional space One explanation for this result is that highly generalizable features are needed for models to work well on data with low redundancy level CNN and PCA-RR models generalize in different ways because data sets are small and multiple solutions with a similar (low) performance may emerge from learning on a large feature set PCA and CNN-derived features may be inconsistent with each other which in turn is detrimental to overall predictive performance Note that this does not apply to the high redundancy set because there is a much smaller space of possible (good) solutions and features driving the prediction are likely to be more similar across learning methods When redundancy is defined only along a single dimension either location (centroid similarity) or topology (raw similarity) the low redundancy set still retains images that are redundant on the other dimension The CNN-derived and PCA features will be therefore more similar and combining them in the Hybrid model improves performance we find that redundancy defined in simple terms as variants of Euclidean distances of lesions is a critical parameter that determines how accurately a given model can predict language deficit based on MRI lesion images Even though these results are obtained for the current data set they are likely to be general in nature and it would be interesting to examine other MRI diagnostic problems in this context Long-term language scores predicted by the four machine learning models: (A) CNN Predictive accuracy is indexed by R2 values Prediction accuracy for long-term deficit in terms of r2 values (range 0.35–0.59) was lower compared to our previous results (range 0.63–0.68). However, accuracy is remarkable when considering that the models did not include patients’ demographic data and/or acute-phase neuropsychological scores as (additional) predictors (see Hope et al., 2013; Ramsey et al., 2017) we assessed deep and shallow machine learning approaches to predicting cognitive deficits from MRI lesion images Conventional (shallow) machine learning methods typically require extraction and selection of image features that represent topological information about the lesion We compared SVR and CNN techniques to a previously developed method based on RR We also developed a Hybrid method based on re-using CNN’s high-level features together with PCA image features as input to a RR model Overall, our results suggest that deep learning leverages predictive performance, which also scales up favorably with the amount of training data. Dataset size has been highlighted as a key issue for the lesion-behavior mapping problem (Price et al., 2017) Though the size of our dataset was far from optimal for deep learning our analyses suggest that CNNs are likely to significantly outperform competing models when more patient data will become available we observed that the CNN already outperforms conventional models in resolving quantitative differences among the subgroup of patients with language deficit This is crucial in the context of predicting the severity of deficit (i.e. a regression problem) as opposed to the mere presence of deficit (i.e. The CNN’s tuning to fine-grained prediction of the severity of deficit also helps explaining why CNN features boosted the overall performance of the Hybrid model Other avenues for future research include the assessment of deep learning models that include connectivity data to address the question of whether predictive accuracy is leveraged by information on structural and/or functional disconnection among brain regions (Forkel et al., 2014; Siegel et al., 2016; Hope et al., 2018) the prospect of predicting long-term deficits and/or the potential for functional recovery has profound implications for clinical practice The dataset used in the present work was obtained from a study on stroke patients carried out at the Washington University School of Medicine The study and all procedures were approved by the Washington University School of Medicine Internal Review Board; written informed consent was obtained from all participants in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki MC contributed to the interpretation of the datasets and results SC performed the numerical simulations and analyses with the help and guidance of LV and SA All authors discussed the results and reviewed final version of the manuscript This study was in part supported by grant RF-2013-02359306 from the Italian Ministry of Health and by a Strategic Project Grant from the University of Padova (to MZ) The clinical dataset was collected in a study funded by grants R01 HD061117-05 and R01 NS095741 (to MC) The funders had no role in the study design LV was employed by company Tata Consultancy Services (TCS Research) The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest Abadi, M., Agarwal, A., Barham, P., Brevdo, E., and Zheng, X. 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This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) *Correspondence: Shandar Ahmad, c2hhbmRhckBqbnUuYWMuaW4=; Marco Zorzi, bWFyY28uem9yemlAdW5pcGQuaXQ= Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. 94% of researchers rate our articles as excellent or goodLearn more about the work of our research integrity team to safeguard the quality of each article we publish. 2013Photographed by Delphine ArchardSave this storySaveSave this storySaveCaroline Corbeta Milan Art Tour A look at Icelandic artist **Ragnar Kjartansson’**s latest installation a private glimpse at Leonardo da Vinci’s manuscripts Day-Glo molded heads by the young artist Riccardo Andujar All in a day’s work for the young Milanese curator and art critic Caroline Corbetta who’s determined to prove her native city has a flourishing art ecosystem and a bevy of dedicated gallerygoers she shows us the can’t-miss art spots in Milan The city’s complicated layout has spawned a thriving we start our day in a former industrial area an ex–locomotive factory turned impressive contemporary art space HangarBicocca for a local preview of Kjartansson’s latest work: “The Visitors” was named after ABBA’s final album as she greets the dapper artist (Kjartansson’s tailor is JÖR by Guðmundur Jörundsson) Corbetta initially worked with Iceland’s emerging star when she curated the Nordic Festival of Contemporary Arts in 2004 “I asked my friends to play an instrument in an amazing nineteenth-century house at the dilapidated Rokeby farm in upstate New York,” explains Kjartansson describing his latest piece: nine screens projecting various dreamy jam-scene sessions He’s then off to Venice to “hug my collaborators,” who have been performing every day in his staged piece at this year’s Venice Biennale MENUART & DESIGNCaroline Corbetta: Guerrilla GalleristsMeet three storefront curators who are gleefully subverting the white-cube mentality Caroline Corbetta peers into the window of Il Carpaccio a trattoria in Milan’s arty Porta Venezia district Scraps of paper are stuck to the inside of the glass—the detritus of a night of performance art she organized the previous month the otherwise traditionally attired proprietor has a tiny red phallus embroidered on his shirt The artist Francesca Battello had stitched it onto guests’ clothes Il Carpaccio is affectionately known as Il Crepaccio (“the crevasse”) a reference to the restaurant’s 16-inch-deep window took over as an exhibition space in May 2012 (The restaurant continues to function in the back.) Since then she has presented shows by young artists such as Serena Vestrucci who filled the window with objects dangling on strings who makes enigmatic sculptures of heads on plinths “Happenings” are staged in the street out front One night brought a school bus screening video art; on another occasion a chalk outline in the street was filled in with a pile of oranges curious passersby mingle with the city’s art and fashion crowd but these two levels don’t speak so often,” Corbetta says “I’d like to create a space where they meet.” Next up at Il Crepaccio is a “performative dinner” by the young fashion designer Andrea Incontri and a Christmas concert by the Icelandic artist Ragnar Kjartansson, whose nine-screen video installation “The Visitors” was recently on view at Milan’s HangarBicocca gallery It’s all part of Corbetta’s mission to bring contemporary art to a wider public “It’s really exciting when the old ladies from the neighborhood pass by and say “People are always trying to figure us out. They say, Wait, this is crazy. You design artist books, and you have a bookstore, but you also have a gallery. I don’t get it.” Read more about curator Brendan Dugan here The book he designed for the artist Carol Bove. Read more about curator Brendan Dugan here “Milan is both bourgeois and avant-garde, but these two levels don’t speak so often. I’d like to create a space where they meet.” Read more about curator Caroline Corbetta here An installation at Il Crepaccio, 2012. Read more about curator Caroline Corbetta here “I’ve lived in the East Village for most of my adult life. But it was revelatory to see how this tiny space could activate the neighborhood.” Read more about curator Alison Gingeras here Jerzy “Jurry” Zielinski’s Zaspokajanie, 1969, and Polski Akt Matzenstwa, 1974. Read more about curator Alison Gingeras here “This is a great example of why Washington University is so unique in terms of collaborative research and collegiality.” Read more stories from School of Medicine Visit School of Medicine Temperature-controlled switch activates sperm, is key to fertility WashU partners with leading St. Louis recreation organizations Brain decoder controls spinal cord stimulation Federal court order a victory for rule of law Tips for Class of 2025 jobseekers How tariff uncertainty will impact economy, businesses Want to Start a Business? Maybe Begin by Being a Gig Worker. Trump’s Budget Cuts Funding for Chronic Disease Prevention Religion in Schools Recognising pedestrian patterns might become essential in predicting and managing the active flow of pedestrian crowds in the future Professor Federico Toschi and university researcher Alessandro Corbetta have won a so-called Ig Nobel prize with their analysis of the pedestrian movements of 5 million passengers in Eindhoven's train station The scientists discovered that on average people keep a minimum distance of 75 centimetres from each other to avoid collisions The alternative Nobel Prizes were created for 'achievements that first make people laugh which has been awarded annually since 1991 the Dutch-British physicist Andre Geim even managed to win an Ig Nobel Prize before receiving a real Nobel Prize in Physics ten years later Toschi and Corbetta installed four sensors under the platforms of Eindhoven railway station they observed 5 million pedestrians within a measuring area of 27 square metres and discovered that people keep a minimum distance of 75 centimetres from each other Pedestrians were found to be subconsciously constantly avoiding collisions with oncoming people by changing their footpath metres in advance if a collision was about to occur About 18,000 pedestrians were found to be facing each other in pairs In other words; a potential collision hazard Corbetta: "About 80 of these pedestrians actually collided with each other The remaining pedestrians adjusted their paths until they were at least 140 centimetres away from each other and thus avoided a collision." the researchers developed a statistical model that can predict pedestrian movements very accurately you know in advance how many pedestrians will run we found two 'social forces': a long-range force based on sight and a short-range force to prevent actual touch These forces cause people to adjust their current walking path to avoid collisions." both scientists have continued to develop their model and collect large scale data Corbetta and Toschi's ultimate goal is to understand pedestrian movements "I dream of eventually understanding the dynamics of dense crowds," Toschi explains there seem to be universal characteristics of pedestrian movements in a crowd we see that about 1 person per 1000 people turned around and left the tunnel on the same side Even if this person was alone and independent of motivation." Recognising these patterns may be essential in the future in predicting and eventually managing the natural movement patterns of pedestrians we can design safer and more efficient places where many pedestrians come together based on the natural walking behaviour of people How can we spread the crowds as much as possible over an area we have tried in the past to see if we can send people in a certain direction by means of light our research fits perfectly in the Ig Nobel picture; at first it is research that people might be surprised by but soon they see that we can set important changes in motion with it." United Arab Emirates Formula 4 champion Matteo Nannini – nephew of F1 race-winner Alessandro – will join the Formula Regional European Championship from its second round of the season at Vallelunga He will race with?Scuderia DF Corse by Corbetta which has been competing in Italian F4 over the past couple of years and received its Alfa-Romeo powered Tatuus Regional F3 chassis back in February Nannini has been given special dispensation to race in the series as he doesn’t reach the minimum age of 16 until July The Italian made his car racing debut in UAE F4 in January winning his maiden race from pole position before adding six further wins on his way to the title He’s had already testing the FRegional machine with the team at Vallelunga just over two weeks prior to the race weekend Mexican Raul Guzman led a DR Formula one-two at the top of the timesheets ?The Corbetta team provided me with a completely new machine and I tried it,” Nannini?said “The test went very well,?the car is faster and heavier than an F4?but I had no difficulty with it I advance almost a year [ahead of other drivers his age] and I can get more superlicense points in addition to the 12 that I’ve already earned “My goal for the first few races is to gain experience and?look for the podium by the end of the year.?I thank Angelo Corbetta for this opportunity he believes in my abilities and we are sure that he will be fine.” Nannini had signed to race in Italian Formula 4 with Bhaitech after testing extensively with the team last year but will have to pass up that deal as the two series share the same bill at six events Bhaitech elected to compete in Formula Renault Eurocup rather than FRegional – the series which beat Eurocup to the Regional F3 tender in Europe “Bhaitech does not participate in FRegional so I thank you for all they have done for me but I have to look forward,” he added which shares the support bill with FREC for six of its seven rounds It will race with series returnee Fabio Vendetti and karting graduate?Pietro Delli Guanti FRegional attracted just 10 drivers to its season-opening race at Paul Ricard with Prema’s Frederik Vesti coming away from the weekend with a seven-point championship lead over his team-mate Ferrari junior Enzo Fittipaldi Established in 2011 and previously found at PaddockScout.com Formula Scout is home to regular news and features from the world of junior single-seater racing tracking the progress of future grand prix stars We use cookies to enhance your browsing experience We use cookies to help you navigate efficiently and perform certain functions You will find detailed information about all cookies under each consent category below The cookies that are categorized as "Necessary" are stored on your browser as they are essential for enabling the basic functionalities of the site We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze how you use this website and provide the content and advertisements that are relevant to you These cookies will 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ad campaigns ISPI Mattia Corbetta is a Policy Analyst at the OECD Trento Centre for Local Development Between 2012 and 2019 he worked as a Policy Adviser at the Italian Ministry of Economic Development where he contributed to designing the Italian Startup Act the National Plan on Industry 4.0 and other policies on digital and inclusive entrepreneurship he worked at the Italian Chambers of Commerce in Switzerland and Morocco at the Italian Embassy in Syria and at the UN Volunteers program in Germany He graduated in International Relations at LUISS Guido Carli gained a MA in Business & Trade in MENA at the University of Perugia and a MA in Contemporary History at the University of Bologna 16-year-old Edi Haxhiu has been confirmed to join the Euroformula Open grid for the 2015 season with Italian outfit Corbetta Competizioni The Swiss driver started his single-seater career last year in Italian F4 with Cram Motorsport taking 14th in the standings with a best result of sixth “I immediately felt comfortable with the car and I can not wait to start the season” “I feel the connection with the team and I hope to improve quickly in order to compete for the top positions.” “I am happy to have Edi in the team.” “I have always focused on young talents and Edi showed his skills in a test in Barcelona and I am convinced that we can do well this season.” While they were not able to field a full-time entry last year Corbetta’s 2013 season saw Tommaso Menchini take third in the Copa class Corbetta Competizioni is one of seven teams taking part in the first round of the Euroformula Open Winter Series at Jerez which consists of eight test sessions over the next two days Among the 12 drivers who are already confirmed to enter the regular season there are other racers showing up at the test including Leonardo Pulcini with DAV Racing Dzhon Simonyan and Antoni Ptak with RP Motorsport and Luis Michael Dorrbecker with EmiliodeVillota Motorsport Formula Abarth champion Alessio Rovera will also be present with Team West-Tec Vai al contenuto Maurizio Corbetta is Professor of Neurology at the University of Padua and Director of the Neurological Clinic at the Azienda Ospedaliera in Padua He is also one of the Principal Investigators in a research project that addresses one of the most critical issues of clinical neuroscience: rehabilitation after a neurological damage caused for example by a stroke or other pathologies which Corbetta leads along with researchers from Milan and Barcelona “I guess I am one of the few “returning brains” but the homing gene kicks in at some point in your life” The chance to answer this nostalgic call opened up as a Chair in Neurology in Padua became available: “In the Italian system most people are promoted from the inside very rarely people are actually recruited from outside so this was a unique opportunity to try to come back to Italy and do something here” Maurizio Corbetta proposed to develop a center to study the brain in Padua where there is a long tradition of anatomy This is why the Padua Neuroscience Center was founded as a university center In 2018 a new PhD programme in neuroscience was created too Getting an ERC Synergy Grant is no easy task my lab life and my family life supporting myself on individual grants from the NIH (National Institutes of Health) so I have a lot of experience in doing grants” it is quite common in Europe to have consortia with multiple universities collaborating “But most of the time everybody does their own things you come together for the money but then very rarely you get a solid scientific collaboration” and everybody got to a point where you needed the other one to move along Marcello Masimini in Milan worked with Mavi Sanchez-Vivez in Barcelona for another ten years And now the two of us needed the other two We’ve been talking about this grant for about a year before we wrote it We had to submit it twice and this time we got scored very highly and we got the grant” True exchange of expertise and ideas among the investigators is really key to the Synergy Grant “The four pillars of the proposal are really intersecting I think this is the key of the Synergy Grant: you cannot pretend you are interacting I do not have skills that Marcello in Milan has or Gustavo in Barcelona has but now we are setting up an animal lab in Padua to work with Mavi in Barcelona I’m starting to do something I have never done before A suggestion to those who want to submit a proposal: “I think it is important to spend together the last weeks: we locked ourselves in a hotel for about a week and we prepared the interview very intensely The great thing about this kind of grant is they really allow you to work together The bad thing is they are a bit of a shoot in the sky: “you shoot for the moon you have this revolutionary concept to get the money We are proposing something that is very innovative But I think in the process we are going to learn a lot even a movie on how the project has come up and is developing: we have cameras in all our labs Maybe we’re going to Venice Film festival with this documentary The ERC Synergy Grant is designed to support projects addressing a research problem so ambitious that it requires a team of 2-4 Principal Investigators (PIs) to address it PIs have to work together and bring different skills and resources to tackle ambitious research problems The criterion of evaluation takes on the additional meaning of outstanding intrinsic synergetic effect.Synergy Grants can be up to a maximum of € 10 million for a period of 6 years via Martiri della libertà 8, 35137 Padova, Italy tel. +39 049.827 1947 / 1948 / 1945 fax +39 049.827 1911international.research@unipd.it The couple's 24-year-old son found the lifeless bodies of the two spouses in the bed Vita Di Bono and Luigi Buccino (47 and 54 years old) light years away from the abyss that opened at dawn on Sunday November 5th in their apartment at number 50 of via Piave in Corbetta where Vita killed her husband and then killed herself according to what has been reconstructed so far by the carabinieri (italian police) would have grabbed a knife and stabbed her partner in the back who was still sleeping under the covers and then slit his throat investigators and prosecutors want to understand if the woman had taken medicines or psychotropic drugs On social media Vita and Luigi seemed like a model family he was a bricklayer who came to the hinterland from Calabria They posted photos of them smiling at the sea; they posted happy shots of birthdays and anniversaries with their grown-up children Distant memories because the daily serenity was cracked and perhaps their relationship had come to an end the woman had had some psychological problems in recent months and had received treatment at the Magenta hospital some neighbors told investigators about frequent arguments it seems that there are neither previous complaints nor old interventions by the police A few months ago the woman had tried to kill herself The macabre discovery took place in the afternoon of Sunday The 24-year-old son could not get in touch with his parents and so he rushed to their home The call to 112 was triggered but the health workers could only ascertain the death The carabinieri of the Abbiategrasso company the investigative unit and the scientific unit then intervened on the spot The investigations quickly took a very precise direction: no external track but a family tragedy matured within the walls of the house Here is the original version. The article is part of the english selection of the online metropolitan newspaper MilanoToday.it Technical University Eindhoven researchers Federico Toschi and Alessandro Corbetta were awarded an Ig Nobel Prize for their research into how pedestrians avoid bumping into each other at Eindhoven train station they discovered that people keep an average distance of at least 75 centimeters from each other to prevent collisions and that 1 in 1,000 people will turn around and go back the way they came to avoid bumping into someone else The Ig Nobel Prizes are awarded annually for research that first makes you laugh scientific research that must be published in a scientific journal Toschi and Corbetta's study was published in the journal Physical Review E in 2018 "We are very proud of very proud of this award This recognition is great," Corbetta said on the TU/e website Tosci and Corbetta installed four sensors under the platforms of Eindhoven station and for six months they observed the movements of 5 million pedestrians within an area of 27 square meters They found that pedestrians unconsciously and constantly try to avoid collisions with oncoming people by changing their walking route meters in advance if they see a collision coming They also saw that people keep an average of 75 centimeters away from each other "About 80 of these pedestrians actually collided with each other The other pedestrians adjusted their walking route until they were at least 140 centimeters apart and thus managed to avoid a collision," Corbetta said They also found that about 1 person in every 1,000 would turn around completely and walk back the way they came to avoid a collision their study into recognizing these movement patterns can be essential in managing pedestrian traffic flow we can make places where many pedestrians congregate safer and more efficient based on the natural walking behavior of people," Toschi said How can we spread crowds of people over an area as much as possible We are trying to manipulate the social system Ig Nobel prizes were also awarded to a study into volatile organic compounds given off by people watching movies in a theater a study showing that the obesity of a country's politicians may be an indicator of that country's corruption and a study finding that sexual orgasms can be as effective as medicine for treating a stuffy nose Last year, Amsterdam researcher Damiaan Denys won an Ig Nobel Prize for his study into Misophonia - a mental illness in which certain sounds like snoring can drive people to extreme tendencies. The year before, Nijmegen researchers won this prize for their study into dirty banknotes.