Metrics details The formation of spilitic assemblages (i.e chlorite and albite) has been ubiquitously involved during the evolution of continental early-Permian volcanics from the Intra-Sudetic Basin (ISB) Based on the investigation of laccolith-type and variably-altered trachyandesite exposure in the vicinity of Głuszyca Górna (Lower Silesia we have demonstrated that apatite fission-track dating (AFT) can be successfully applied to denote the timing of low-temperature alterations within volcanic rocks The primary magmatic assemblages of the trachyandesites (i.e augite and andesine-labradorite) have been affected by chloritization and alblitization respectively followed by the formation of secondary titanite The chlorite species have crystallized in the range of 106–170 °C that exceeds Apatite Partial Annealing Zone (70–110 °C) nearly pure albite (Ab ~ 99 mol.%) with weak to dark-brown cathodoluminescence replaces primary plagioclase (~ An37–50Ab47–58Or2–4) along the cleavage and/or twinning planes during Al3+–conservative reaction The accessory apatite is marked by swallow-tail terminations indicative of rapid cooling formation conditions and pink to yellow (REE3+ and Mn2+-activated the development of spilitic alterations within the early-Permian (ca 290 Ma) laccolith from Głuszyca could not only span the range of 182–161 Ma (Middle Jurassic) but also occurred prior to large-scale geological events in the ISB such as burial under late-Mesozoic sediments as well as tectonic inversion and exhumation Whole-rock geochemistry of trachyandesites altered to various extent indicates that original trace elements concentrations could be preserved during low-temperature alteration (spilitization) geochemical fingerprint of the volcanics (i.e humped-shaped mantle normalized trace element diagrams and positive Zr–Hf anomaly) points to the crustal contamination during magma evolution combined with the mantle metasomatism in the source via subduction-derived components (i.e the formation of secondary albite may be regarded as either low (~ 70 °C) or up to medium-temperature (up to ca 350 °C) process depending on the physicochemical properties of alternating fluids we have aimed at the reconstruction of mineral-replacement reactions during low-temperature alteration (spilitization) of continental volcanic rocks from the Intra-Sudetic Basin based on variably altered samples collected from laccolith-type exposure in the vicinity of Głuszyca Górna (Lower Silesia we show that combination of chlorite thermometry and apatite fission-track dating (AFT) can be successfully applied to establish the timing of low-temperature hydrothermal fluid flow responsible for the formation of spilitic assemblages in volcanic rocks the whole rock major and trace element data provided a reconstruction model of magma evolution and the effects of secondary alterations on the possible redistribution of trace elements 2 (middle parts at the contact zone with adjacent intra-eruptive sediments) (B) Field photo showing the contact between trachyandesites and intra-eruptive deposits (shales with partially-silicified limestones) The cross-section was generated using CorelDrawX6 software Photomicrographs of trachyandesites from Głuszyca revealing variable alteration style and degree (A) Partially-chloritized Na-rich clinopyroxene (aegirine; Aeg) accompanied by twinned Ca-rich clinopyroxene (augite; Aug) and magnetite (Mt)—Loc (B) Ca-rich clinopyroxene (augite) surrounded by partially-albitized (Ab) plagioclase laths and massive to bundle-like (dark-green) chlorite aggregates (Chl)—Loc (C) Incipient stages of albitization accompanied by the formation of calcite (Cal)—Loc (D) Complete replacement of pyroxene by pale-green and fibrous chlorite crystals accompanied by oval-shaped calcite—Loc marked by intense green colouration that partially masks original int colours) intergrown with chlorite (Chl; colourless both embedded within rock matrix consisting of entirely albitized plagioclase laths surrounded by aphanitic volcanic glass (porphyric micro-texture)—Loc 2; note the presence of original twinning planes in secondary albite inherited from magmatic precursor (yellow arrow) (F) Albitized plagioclases accompanied by numerous opaque to reddish iron oxides (Fe-ox)—Loc Note the presence of apatite (Ap) enclosed in albitized primary plagioclase SEM-BSE images of Głuszyca trachyandesites collected from lower parts of the laccolith and showing the presence of unaltered mafic phases such as pyroxene-group species and Ti–rich magnetite (A) Na-rich pyroxene (aegirine) accompanied by Ti–rich magnetite (Mt) consisting oriented thin (trellis-type) intergrowths of ilmenite lamellae as well as secondary titanite (Ttn) and quartz (Qz); (B) Chloritized Na-rich pyroxene (aegirine) enveloped by relatively fresh Ca-rich pyroxene (augite); Note the sharp boundary between those phases as well as the formation of etched cleavage planes within host Na-rich pyroxene (C) Partial alteration of augite into fibrous Mg-rich chlorite (Mg-Chl); Note the presence of minor hornblende (Hbn) (D) Alteration of primary Ti–rich magnetite (Mt) into secondary rutile (or anatase—Rt) aegirine is frequently surrounded by fan-shaped aggregates of titanite followed by minor amounts of quartz The breakdown of augite into chlorite has also been noted although in the vast majority of investigated samples the pervasive chloritization has totally wiped out original microtextural features of the rocks and thus the detailed identification of pre-existing pyroxene is not available Raman spectra for augite (Aug) and aegirine (Aeg) in the spectral range of 1200–100 cm−1 along with corresponding photomicrographs (reflected light mode) and analytical point marked by red cross Green and/or greenish-gray luminescent plagioclase is marked by intermediate composition, i.e. An contents range from 37.33 to 50.49 mol.%, whilst Ab concentration is between 46.85 and 58.38 mol.% (Table 4) it represents either andesine or labradorite members of the feldspar group Primary plagioclase also contains trace amounts of TiO2 (~ 0.09 wt.%) and MgO (~ 0.09 wt.%) Variable stages of albitization developed within Głuszyca trachyandesites revealed using OM-CL technique (A) Incipient albitization marked by the occurrence of pure weak to dark-brown luminescent albite (Ab) patches invading primary greenish-gray luminescent plagioclase host (andesine-labradorite) (Plag); Note that albitized andesine-labradorite is rimmed by relatively fresh blue-luminescent K-feldspar (K-fsp) showing embayed grain contacts with interstitial weakly-luminescent quartz (yellow arrow)—Loc (B) Progressive albitization of primary andesine-labradorite (Plag) (Loc D) Complete replacement of andesine-labradorite by brown-luminescent secondary albite (Ab) in the samples from the middle (Loc Note that CL spectra of greenish-gray luminescent plagioclase and bright-blue luminescent K-feldspar in the spectral range of 200–900 nm were shown at the bottom of the image SEM-BSE images showing albitization in trachyandesites from Głuszyca (A) Partial albitization of primary plagioclase (andesine-labradorite) followed by the formation of minor rutile; note the secondary albite do not contain any visible cogenetic inclusions except for chlorite that could precipitate in voids (Loc 1); (B) Complete albitization of andesine-labradorite (Loc 3); Note the presence K-feldspar surrounding albitized andesine-labradorite as well as abundant micron-sized micropores developed within the secondary albite (A) Two-types of fluorapatite species showing pinkish and yellowish CL colours depending on size and orientation of particular crystals (Loc 1); Note the occurrence of hollow-type (ho-Ap) and swallow-tail (sw-Ap) fabrics (B) BSE image of fluorapatite (embedded within the cryptocrystalline groundmass) showing well-developed swallow-tail morphology (Loc Note the CL spectra of pink-luminescent and yellow-luminescent fluorapatite in the spectra range 200–900 nm were included at the bottom of the image AFT radial plots of the samples from various areas of the laccolith from Głuszyca; Note that the inferred timing for magma emplacement is indicated by grey strips The numbers in brackets indicate how many fluorapatite crystals yielded the same AFT age Apatite fission-track length data for the samples from Loc 2 (middle part of the laccolith) (A) and 3 (upper part of the laccolith) (B) and standard deviations (SD) were included within particular histograms 1 (lower part of the laccolith; GL_01A) was excluded due to the insufficient amounts of confined tracks The curves are characterized by negative troughs for Nb and Ta and corresponding enrichment in LREE LILE (large ion lithophile elements) such as Cs and K show remarkable variations in the mantle-normalized patterns The strongly-altered samples from upper parts of the laccolith (i.e GL_03) are relatively depleted in Sr and Ba and K relative to the samples from lower parts of the laccolith (with lower alteration degree—i.e the sample GL-01A from the lowermost part of the laccolith shows notably lower U contents All samples are marked by slightly positive Zr and Hf spikes relative to HREE coupled with notable negative anomalies for Ti and P The formation of spilitic assemblages in Głuszyca trachyandesite laccolith involved chloritization of primary pyroxenes (i.e augite) and albitization of primary plagioclases (andesine-labradorite) These alterations were followed by the concomitant formation of celadonite and vug-filling chlorites primary magnetite/ilmenite) in the uppermost parts of the laccolith that the abundance of calcite indicates high activity of CO2 during metasomatic processes whereas the formation of secondary titanite could be triggered by the release of Ca2+ and Ti4+ during the breakdown of pyroxene and magnetite/ilmenite the presence of augite overgrowing on aegirine as well as the possible chloritization of aegirine aegirine occurs as relatively large prismatic crystal found exclusively in less altered rocks; no sodic pyroxene occurs in any strongly-albitized samples its presence cannot be explicitly related to the formation of other Na-bearing minerals (i.e secondary albite) as a result of Na metasomatism aegirine crystals may be interpreted as xenoliths although further investigations are necessary to support such a type of scenario the transition from primary plagioclase to secondary albite could follow simplified albitization could also reflect the constant-volume reaction that assumes some quantities of Al3+ to be released during mineral replacement reaction: both elements necessary for albitization of andesine-labradorite (see reactions II and III) The development and extent of albitization might be possibly related to such factors as: the geochemical character of trachynadesite-forming magma (i.e sodium-rich character of primary plagioclase (i.e andesine) that require relatively less amounts of Na+ in alternating fluids and/or subvolcanic rather than stricte extrusive character of volcanic rocks from the ISB it is also possible that some amount of Na+ could be derived from chloritization of Na-bearing pyroxene (aegirine) since replacive Mg-chlorite represents Na-free species that could incorporate only such elements as Al and Fe during the breakdown of primary pyroxene Na released during the breakdown of aegirine could be further fixed with secondary albite Relatively short mean confined track lengths (12.23–12.40 µm) coupled with uniform distribution of track lengths and low values of standard deviations (1.5–1.9 µm) suggest almost total reheating of the rocks due to invasion of metasomatizing spilitization-related fluids The variations of AFT ages obtained from various areas of the magmatic body (from 182 to 161 Ma) possibly account for the variable progress of alteration processes and /or differences in cooling rates the Sudetes area could be rather exposed as an archipelago of islands (paleo-highs) emerging above the sea level and hence burial during the Cenomanian transgression had not necessarily affected some older deposits the exact paleographic reconstruction of exact position as well as extent of these island is still quite vague and ambiguous The results of AFT dating obtained for trachyandesites from Głuszyca (161–182 Ma) indicate that these rocks have not preserved the record of large-scale geological events in the Intra-Sudetic Basin such as tectonic inversion and exhumation These ages are also notably older than the transgression of the Cenomanian sea (~ 95 Ma) and hence seem to support the “Island scenario” in the Intra-Sudetic Basin indicating no significant influence of Late-Mesozoic sediment deposition on the cooling history of the volcanic rocks further investigations are necessary to eventually re-evaluate the low-temperature history of the ISB that involves the presence of emerged landmasses (“Sudetic Islands”) during the Cenomanian the samples containing pyroxene relicts and partially-albitized plagioclase (i.e lower parts of the laccolith) are relatively rich in Sr but depleted in Cs relative to the samples from upper parts of the laccolith that show increasing alteration degree (i.e These changes could be explained by leaching of Sr and Ba during plagioclase (and partially K-feldspar) alteration (i.e whereas the enrichment is Cs could be possibly explained by the weathering of feldspars followed by the formation of hydrous phases (e.g Depletion in Ba within the sample from upper parts of the laccolith could be attributed to either alteration/weathering or fractional crystallization of K-feldspars variations in U contents (depleted in samples from lowermost parts of the laccolith) is linked to the variable amounts of apatite rather that secondary alterations effect as evidenced by well-developed positive correlation between P2O5 and U (R2 = 0.88) Trachyandesites from Głuszyca laccolith-type magmatic body (Lower Silesia SW Poland) contain spilitic assemblages including Mg-chlorite (after augite and/or aegirine) Sodium input could be either triggered by magmatic-related CO2-rich although Na+ and Si4+ could also originate from the early breakdown of sodium-bearing pyroxene (aegirine) which has been recognized for the first time in volcanogenic rocks from the Intra-Sudetic Basin Albitization was crystallographically-controlled mechanism that resulted in the formation of weakly luminescent to dark-brown luminescent almost pure (Ab > 99 mol.%) secondary albite forming elongated patches developed within interior of the host andesine-labradorite (~ An47Ab50Or3) These features are typical of diagenetically-altered (low-temperature) feldspars and support rather low-temperature character of fluid-rock interactions during late or post magmatic stage Al3+ released during albitization of andesine-labradorite could be entirely consumed by secondary albite and thus cogenetic Al-bearing phases (i.e which has been frequently reported from secondary albite from granitic rocks worldwide AFT ages of the volcanic rocks range from 182 to 161 Ma and hence span Early-Jurassic–Late-Jurassic time These ages are significantly younger relative to the early-Permian volcanism (ca 290 Ma) responsible for the formation of Głuszyca trachyandesite laccolith but older than the large-scale geological events in the Intra-Sudetic Basin this time period can reflect the timing of low-temperature alterations typical of spilitzation in the Intra-Sudetic Basin Crystallization temperatures of replacive (Mg-rich) chlorites were estimated as ranging between 106–170 °C according to chemical and semi-empirical geothermometers A similar temperature range was obtained for non-replacive (vugs-filling) chlorite found in close special association with celadonite These results indicate that spilitization-related fluids were able to reheat volcanic rocks above the Apatite Partial Annealing zone REEs) in variably-spilitized volcanic rocks are negligible except for LILE elements which chiefly include Sr (the depletion in strongly-altered samples) and Cs (the enrichment in strongly altered samples) coupled with humped-shaped mantle-normalized trace element patterns and positive Zr-Hf anomaly indicate metasomatism in the magma source (via subduction-related fluids) combined with the pronounced crustal contamination crustal contamination can be supported by the presence of interstitial quartz and yellow-luminescent (REE3+ and Mn2+ activated) outer domains of fluorapatite Thin sections of the samples were examined using Olympus BX 51 polarizing microscope with a magnification ranging from 40 × to 400 ×  The observations were conducted using transmitted (during micro-textural observations and description of main rock-forming components) and reflected light modes (for preliminary identification of opaque and ore-related minerals) The photomicrographs were acquired using an Olympus DP12 digital camera equipped with the Analysis software The cathodoluminescence observations (OM-CL) were conducted at the Polish Geological Institute—National Research Institute in Warsaw The CL observations were conducted on polished thin sections using a Cambridge Image Technology CCL 8200 MK3 device (cold cathode) coupled with a Nikon Optiphot 2 polarizing microscope The CL photomicrographs have been taken using a digital Canon EOS 600D camera Cathodoluminescence spectra were obtained by LEO 1430 scanning electron microscope coupled with a CL-image system (ASK-CL VIS View) and CL spectrometer (ASK SEM-CL) The intensity of CL spectra was normalized to 100% in terms of the intensity units The JEOL ZAF procedure was used for the matrix correction of the raw data The temperature of chlorite formation was calculated using five independent approaches T (°C) = –61.92 + 160.99·AlIV(O14)—41 T (°C) = 319·[AlIV(O28) + 0.1· (Fe/Fe + Mg)] − 69—44 T (°C) = –106.2·[AlIV(O28)–0.88·(Fe/Fe + Mg−0.34)] + 17.5—43 T (°C) = 106.2·[AlIV(O28)–0.48·(Fe/Fe + Mg)−0.163] + 17.5—42 Seven samples have been selected for the whole-rock major- and trace-element analysis which has been conducted at the Bureau Veritas Minerals Laboratories Ltd The material of 5 g per each sample was crushed using Abih mortar and pulverized using agate grinding mill The material was then sieved to obtain ≥ 85% of fraction < 75 µm The samples prepared in this manner were mixed with lithium tetraborate (Li2B4O7) flux The cooled bead was dissolved in ACS grade nitric acid and analyzed by combined ICP-OES (Inductively Coupled Plasma—Optical Emission Spectrometry) and ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma—Mass Spectrometry) techniques The major and trace elements were determined using Spectro Ciros Vision and ELAN 9000 devices Loss on ignition (LOI) was measured by igniting a sample split followed by measuring of the weight loss All data generated or analysed during this study 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The zeta age calibration of fission-track dating Statistical models for mixed fission track ages ‘Track-in-track’ length measurements in annealed apatites Decomposition of mixed grain age distributions using Binomfit Confined fission track lengths in apatite: a diagnostic tool for thermal history analysis Technical Note: Calculation of stoichiometry from EMP data for apatite and other phases with mixing on monovalent anion sites New constraints on electron-beam induced halogen migration in apatite Download references We thank Leszek Giro for his help during CL spectroscopic measurements of particular mineral phases Adam Włodek is greatly acknowledged for his comments and suggestions during electron-microprobe measurements Anonymous Reviewers are thanked for their remarks and suggestions to the first version of the manuscript This work was financially supported by AGH Grant No AGH – University of Science and Technology Tomasz Powolny & Magdalena Dumańska-Słowik Polish Geological Institute - National Research Institute have conducted and fields and mineralogical-geochemical observations but were also responsible for data interpretation and manuscript preparation; A.A was responsible for apatite fission-track dating and interpretation of obtained AFT ages; M.S performed cathodoluminescence observations and provided support during the interpretation of CL spectra The authors declare no competing interests Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Download citation DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15644-2 Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: a shareable link is not currently available for this article International Journal of Earth Sciences (2023) Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science