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Subscribe to our newsletter and stay connected with the latest happenings in the world of bike riding Metrics details The article evaluates air pollution by particulate matter (PM) in indoor and outdoor air in one of the Polish health resorts where children and adults with respiratory diseases are treated The highest indoor PM concentrations were recorded during the winter season the maximum average daily concentration values in indoor air for the PM10 the highest average daily concentrations of PM2.5 reached a value of 40 µg/m3 The analyses and backward trajectories of episodes of high PM concentrations showed the impact of supra-regional sources and the influx of pollutants from North Africa on the variability of PM concentrations The correlation between selected meteorological parameters and PM concentrations shows the relationship between PM concentrations and wind speed the correlation coefficients between PM1(I) and PM1(O) concentrations and wind speed were − 0.8 and − 0.7 respectively These factors determined episodes of high PM concentrations during winter periods in the outdoor air which were then transferred to the indoor air Elevated concentrations in indoor air during summer were also influenced by chimney/gravity ventilation and the appearance of reverse chimney effect with particular reference to rooms where patients stay and receive treatments the aim of the study was to analyse the variability of particulate matter fractions (PM1 PM10) in a selected health resort and to assess the relationship between indoor and outdoor PM concentration correlations and the impact of meteorological factors (including air temperature relative humidity and pressure) on the amount and type of PM pollutants in outdoor and indoor air were identified The influx of particulate matter from the Sahara and the temperature inversion situations have also been taken into account The Szczawno-Zdrój health resort is used by patients with respiratory diseases and other diseases whose results of treatment depend on the aerosanitary condition located in a hollow area with a treatment base organized in infrastructural facilities typical of numerous Polish health resorts especially its therapeutic profile and location Szczawno-Zdrój can be treated as a model case for spa treatment facilities To present the problem of air pollution in terms of particulate matter in Polish health resorts six spa towns with different geographical locations were selected (foothill areas: Szczawno-Zdrój b) Average PM10 concentrations [µg/m3] in selected Polish health resorts: (a) mean annual PM10 concentration with EU and WHO limit values (b) average PM10 concentration in February taking into account the permission received to carry out measurements inside the spa house Szczawno Zdrój was included as a research area in further studies The analyses concerned the characteristics of air pollution in Szczawno-Zdrój with particulate matter (PM1 PM2.5 and PM10) based on measurements made during three measurement campaigns (two during winter and one during summer periods) 2021 and 4–14 February 2022 inside and outside the building of the health resort Air quality measurements were supplemented with indoor and outdoor air temperature measurements (Source of the map: Chief Inspectorate of Environmental Protection Problem report on air quality in health resorts in Poland in 2021 Map of Polish health resorts locations (a) and The Szczawno Zdrój region (b) Spa House in Szczawno-Zdrój Health Resort (c) Measurements were taken in a room with an area of 114.6 m2 and a volume of 522 m3 (the height of the room is approximately 4.45 m) where kinesitherapy treatments are performed The east wall of the room is equipped with five wooden windows measuring 2.7 m high × 2 m wide Under the windows there are air vents and radiators the room was heated with an electric device and the outlet duct of the fireplace serves as gravity ventilation about 100 people (for Measurement Series I and about 170 people in the other measurement series) received treatments from 7 a.m about 60 people received treatments and no treatments were performed on Sundays The research carried out included 24-h measurements of PM10 PM1 particulate matter concentrations in the treatment room located in the Spa House Particulate measuring devices used for the study in the spa HOBO Pro v2-type temperature sensor recorder (c) ml is the mass of the filter with particulates [µg] φa is the air flow under actual conditions [m3/h] The measurement uncertainty for the reference sampler was estimated for the limits based on the standard PN-EN 12341:2014-07 Ambient air Standard gravimetric measurement method is used to determine the mass concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 particulate matter fractions (for k = 2 and 95% confidence level) The mass of the particulate matter was determined gravimetrically using a Radwag MYA 5.3Y.F1 electronic microbalance To obtain complete information on the variability of PM concentrations in the study area the results of PM10 measurements in outdoor air from an urban background station (code: PL0541A) of the State Environmental Monitoring were taken into account The manual measurement station of the Chief Inspectorate of Environmental Protection is located in the Szczawno-Zdrój Health Resort approximately 200 m from our own research measurement station PM10 measurements are performed at the State Environmental Monitoring station with an averaging time of up to 24 h Meteorological data provided by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management (IMWM) were used to determine the influence of meteorological factors on air quality Data included daily average values of air temperature Characterisation of meteorological conditions during the measurement series carried out on the basis of data from the two nearest IMWM stations for which measurement data are available and which These stations are Jelenia Góra (37 km west of Szczawno in the centre of the Jelenia Góra Basin) and Kłodzko (48 km southeast of Szczawno and have similar terrain and landscape characteristics as main measurement point wind direction data from the mountain station of the IMWM on Śnieżka (1603 m above sea level It was considered that because of the station's location at the summit of the highest peak in the Sudetenland these data represent the general characteristics of the air inflow over the study area The analyses were based on the results of PM concentration and selected meteorological parameters measurements and max outside (taking into account the temperature gradient) The analyses concerning the determination of the ratio between indoor and outdoor PM concentration (PM in/PM out) were supplemented by correlations with meteorological variables The results of winter measurement series (series I and III) were combined and subjected to statistical analysis as one data set The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to test the normality of meteorological data and PM concertation Spearman’s correlations and subsequent significance tests were used to measure the strength of a relationship between data This paper does not contain any studies involving humans or animals Variability of selected meteorological parameters (T—air temperature R—6 h total precipitation) registered by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management at Jelenia Góra and Kłodzko stations vs the background of changes in wind direction (WD) at the Śnieżka station during winter measurements: (a) 5–25.02.2021 Due to the nature of short-term variability of all meteorological parameters four additional subperiods can be distinguished: 5–12/02/2021 a period of cold weather with snowfall and an average wind speed of 2.3–2.4 m/s was recorded They were characterised by much greater dynamics favouring an effective exchange of air masses over the analysed area for most of the time strong advection of air masses from the western sector Temperatures above 0 °C were recorded almost all the time with no clearly marked diurnal variation and rather high wind speed (the average for Kłodzko was 5.2 m/s Three precipitation episodes were also recorded Only the last three days were slightly different in character the diurnal variability of air temperature with nighttime frosts and probable thermal inversions was clearly marked and a decrease in wind speed was also recorded at the Jelenia Góra station R—6 h total precipitation) registered at the IMWM stations in Jelenia Góra and Kłodzko the background of changes in wind direction (WD) at the Śnieżka station during winter field experiment the concentration values ranged from 3.0 to 40.0 µg/m3 concentrations were significantly higher than in the second winter season and for PM1(O) ranged from 11.57 to 31.83 µg/m3 both outdoor and indoor PM concentrations showed typical variability The median concentration for the first study period for PM1(I) was 13.2 µg/m3 PM concentrations were significantly lower and did not exceed 25 µg/m3 for all fractions For PM1(O) they ranged from 4.46 to 17.58 µg/m3 while for PM10 (O) they ranged from 2.9 to 21.70 µg/m3 Indoor PM10 concentrations showed low variability and on selected days indoor concentrations were higher than outdoor ones Graphical representation of the basic statistics (1st quartile, median, 3rd quartile) obtained for the PM 24-h concentrations for 3 measurement series. Variability of 24-h average PM1(O) and PM1 PM10(I) concentrations for 3 measurement series Correlation matrix plot with significance levels between the measured PM fractions: (a) the winter season (1st and 3rd campaign) and (b) the summer season (2nd campaign) (significance: ***p < 0.001 The relationship between indoor and outdoor air quality in combination with the prevailing meteorological conditions is of particular interest of this study The Shapiro–Wilk test shows that the concentrations of pollutants are not normally distributed the Spearman correlation coefficient was used to assess the relationship between the variables studied The effects of weather conditions on PM concentrations in the air outside and inside the resort facility were verified the concentration of indoor particulate matter was taken into account as well as the temperature difference between inside and outside Graphical representation of Spearman correlation coefficients r [− 1 ÷ 1] between measured PM fractions (PM1(I) PM10(O)) and meteorological factors (lighter colour of bars indicates no significant correlation p > 0.05) for the winter (a) and summer (b) (P average diurnal air pressure [hPa] Tdiv_avg average diurnal differences between indoor and outdoor temperature (HOBO) [°C] TG average temperature gradient in the vicinity of spa resort (HOBO) [°C/100 m] Toutmin minimum diurnal temperature (HOBO) [°C] Toutmax maximum diurnal temperature (HOBO) [°C] Tout average diurnal temperature (HOBO) [°C] Tin average diurnal temperature inside the building (HOBO) [°C]) Correlation scatter plots between PM10(I)/PM10(O) and PM1(I)/PM1(O) concentration ratios and meteorological factors: V-temperature difference index Backward trajectories, summed for the period 23–25/02/2021—(a) for the source height 1000 m AGL, (b) for the source height 100 m AGL (Results presented using the HYSPLIT model: https://www.ready.noaa.gov) A large amplitude of diurnal temperature at the surface (meaning an increase in maximum temperature during the day and a low temperature at night) conditions favouring the accumulation of particulate matter in the near-surface air layer were created Data from aerological soundings in Wroclaw indicated a large temperature gradient of ground-based thermal inversions during the night (from 0.4 to 10.4 °C The lag of inversions and the presence of a mixing layer of small thickness (50–150 m) limited vertical movements in the atmosphere and significantly reduced the mixing of air in both the vertical and horizontal profile The topographic conditions of Polish foothill resorts make them particularly vulnerable to meteorological phenomena such as temperature inversions they have a significant influence on elevated concentrations of particulate matter during the winter season The results of the two winter series and the summer series show the seasonal variability of particulate matter concentrations (Figs. 6, 7) Wind speed and minimum daily temperature had the greatest influence on air quality during the winter season The influence of these factors was reflected not only in the short-term variation of PM concentrations but also in the different PM fraction concentration levels recorded during the first and second series of winter measurements The role of the wind was particularly evident during the winter season in February 2022 when wind speeds ranging from from 1.6 to 6.5 m/s were recorded and the concentration of particulate pollutants was significantly lower than in 2021 with higher air temperatures and wind speeds there was an increase in particulate matter concentrations caused by the inflow of Saharan dust over the European area which remained in the atmosphere for up to several tens of hours an increase in wind speed led to a decrease in indoor concentrations while the PM10(I)/(O) ratio indicated an increased infiltration of pollutants due to an increase in wind speed leading to an increase in indoor concentrations Indoor and outdoor concentrations of individual PM fractions in the two winter seasons showed a very strong correlation indicating the presence of the chimney effect in winter and infiltration of pollutants into the building the wind speed did not have an effect on outdoor particulate matter concentrations higher temperatures were associated with higher concentrations of indoor particulate matter there were relatively low concentrations of PM in outdoor air and high concentrations in indoor air The small temperature difference between outdoor and indoor caused the PM concentrations in the indoor air to be approximately 60% higher than in the outdoor air of the building The high concentrations of PM in the indoor air were determined by the occurrence of the reverse chimney effect phenomenon in the measurement room Taking into account the studies mentioned above the aerosanitary conditions for patients in health resorts are less favourable in terms of PM pollution in winter for outdoor air and in summer 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Atmosphere 13, 493. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13030493 (2022) Download references This research was partially supported by Project LIFE-MAPPINGAIR/PL "Do you know what you breathe?"—educational and information campaign for cleaner air financed with means of the European Union under the LIFE Financial Instrument and co-financed by National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management Wrocław University of Science and Technology Department of Climatology and Atmosphere Protection Anetta Drzeniecka-Osiadacz & Tymoteusz Sawiński Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science “Poltegor-Institute” Institute of Opencast Mining All authors contributed to the study conception and design data collection and analysis were performed by [Beata Merenda] [Anetta Drzeniecka – Osiadacz] [Izabela Sówka] The first draft of the manuscript was written by [Beata Merenda] [Tymoteusz Sawiński] and [Lucyna Samek]and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript The authors declare no competing interests Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Download citation DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70081-7 Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: a shareable link is not currently available for this article Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science Please include what you were doing when this page came up and the Cloudflare Ray ID found at the bottom of this page.